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Proto-Indo-European mythology is the body ofmyths anddeities associated with theProto-Indo-Europeans, speakers of the hypothesizedProto-Indo-European language. Although the mythological motifs are not directly attested – since Proto-Indo-European speakers lived in preliterate societies – scholars ofcomparative mythology have reconstructed details from inherited similarities in mythological concepts found inIndo-European languages, based on the assumption that parts of the Proto-Indo-Europeans' original belief systems survived in the daughter traditions.[note 1]
The Proto-Indo-Europeanpantheon includes a number of securely reconstructed deities, since they are bothcognates—linguistic siblings from a common origin—and associated with similar attributes and body of myths: such as*Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr, thedaylight-sky god; his consort*Dʰéǵʰōm, theearth mother; his daughter*H₂éwsōs, thedawn goddess; his sons theDivine Twins; and*Seh₂ul and*Meh₁not, asolar deity andmoon deity, respectively. Some deities, like theweather god*Perkʷunos or the herding-god*Péh₂usōn,[note 2] are only attested in a limited number of traditions—Western (i.e. European) andGraeco-Aryan, respectively—and could therefore represent late additions that did not spread throughout the various Indo-European dialects.
Some myths are also securely dated to Proto-Indo-European times, since they feature both linguistic and thematic evidence of an inherited motif: a story portraying amythical figure associated with thunder and slaying a multi-headed serpent to release torrents of water that had previously been pent up; acreation myth involvingtwo brothers, one of whom sacrifices the other in order to create the world; and probably the belief that theOtherworld was guarded by awatchdog and could only be reached by crossing a river.
Various schools of thought exist regarding possible interpretations of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European mythology. The main mythologies used in comparative reconstruction areIndo-Iranian,Baltic,Roman,Norse,Celtic,Greek,Slavic,Hittite,Armenian, andAlbanian.
The mythology of the Proto-Indo-Europeans is not directly attested and it is difficult to match their language to archaeological findings related to any specific culture from theChalcolithic.[2] Nonetheless, scholars of comparative mythology have attempted to reconstruct aspects of Proto-Indo-European mythology based on the existence of linguistic and thematic similarities among thedeities, religious practices, and myths of various Indo-European peoples. This method is known as thecomparative method. Different schools of thought have approached the subject of Proto-Indo-European mythology from different angles.[3]
The Meteorological or Naturist School holds that Proto-Indo-European myths initially emerged as explanations for natural phenomena, such as theSky, theSun, theMoon, and theDawn.[5] Rituals were therefore centered around the worship of those elemental deities.[6] This interpretation was popular among early scholars, such asFriedrich Max Müller, who saw all myths as fundamentally solar allegories.[4] Although recently revived by some scholars likeJean Haudry andMartin L. West,[7][8] this school lost most of its scholarly support in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.[9][6]
The Ritual School, which first became prominent in the late nineteenth century, holds that Proto-Indo-European myths are best understood as stories invented to explain various rituals and religious practices.[10][9] Scholars of the Ritual School argue that those rituals should be interpreted as attempts to manipulate the universe in order to obtain its favours.[5] This interpretation reached the height of its popularity during the early twentieth century,[11] and many of its most prominent early proponents, such asJames George Frazer andJane Ellen Harrison, were classical scholars.[12]Bruce Lincoln, a contemporary member of the Ritual School, argues for instance that the Proto-Indo-Europeans believed that every sacrifice was a reenactment of the original sacrifice performed by the founder of the human race on his twin brother.[10]
The Functionalist School, by contrast, holds that myths served as stories reinforcing social behaviours through themeta-narrative justification of a traditional order.[5] Scholars of the Functionalist School were greatly influenced by thetrifunctional system proposed byGeorges Dumézil,[5] which postulates a tripartite ideology reflected in a threefold division between aclerical class (encompassing both the religious and social functions of the priests and rulers), awarrior class (connected with the concepts of violence and bravery), and a class offarmers or husbandmen (associated with fertility and craftsmanship), on the basis that many historically known groups speaking Indo-European languages show such a division.[13][14][15] Dumézil's theory had a major influence on Indo-European studies from the mid-20th century onwards, and some scholars continue to operate under its framework,[16][17] although it has also been criticized as aprioristic and too inclusive, and thus impossible to be proved or disproved.[16]
The Structuralist School argues that Proto-Indo-European mythology was largely centered around the concept ofdualistic opposition.[18] They generally hold that the mental structure of all human beings is designed to set up opposing patterns in order to resolve conflicting elements.[19] This approach tends to focus on cultural universals within the realm of mythology rather than the genetic origins of those myths,[18] such as the fundamental and binary opposition rooted in the nature of marriage proposed byTamaz V. Gamkrelidze andVyacheslav Ivanov.[19] It also offers refinements of the trifunctional system by highlighting the oppositional elements present within each function, such as the creative and destructive elements both found within the role of the warrior.[18]
One of the earliest attested and thus one of the most important of all Indo-European mythologies isVedic mythology,[20] especially the mythology of theRigveda, the oldest of theVedas. Early scholars of comparative mythology such as Friedrich Max Müller stressed the importance of Vedic mythology to such an extent that they practically equated it with Proto-Indo-European myths.[21] Modern researchers have been much more cautious, recognizing that, although Vedic mythology is still central, other mythologies must also be taken into account.[21]
Another of the most important source mythologies for comparative research isRoman mythology.[20][22] The Romans possessed a very complex mythological system, parts of which have been preserved through the characteristic Roman tendency to rationalize their myths into historical accounts.[23] Despite its relatively late attestation,Norse mythology is still considered one of the three most important of the Indo-European mythologies for comparative research,[20] due to the vast bulk of surviving Icelandic material.[22]
Baltic mythology has also received a great deal of scholarly attention, as it is linguistically the most conservative and archaic of all surviving branches, but has so far remained frustrating to researchers because the sources are so comparatively late.[24] Nonetheless, Latvian folk songs are seen as a major source of information in the process of reconstructing Proto-Indo-European myth.[25] Despite the popularity ofGreek mythology in western culture,[26] Greek mythology is generally seen as having little importance in comparative mythology due to the heavy influence ofPre-Greek and Near Eastern cultures, which overwhelms what little Indo-European material can be extracted from it.[27] Consequently, Greek mythology received minimal scholarly attention until the first decade of the 21st century.[20]
AlthoughScythians are considered relatively conservative in regards to Proto-Indo-European cultures, retaining a similar lifestyle and culture,[28]their mythology has very rarely been examined in an Indo-European context and infrequently discussed in regards to the nature of the ancestral Indo-European mythology. At least three deities,Tabiti,Papaios andApi, are generally interpreted as having Indo-European origins,[29][30] while the remaining have seen more disparate interpretations. Influence from Siberian, Turkic and even Near Eastern beliefs, on the other hand, are more widely discussed in literature.[31][32][33]
There was a fundamental opposition between the never-aging gods dwelling above in the skies and the mortal humans living beneath on the earth.[34] Earth (*dʰéǵʰōm) was perceived as a vast, flat and circular continent surrounded by waters ("the Ocean").[35] Although they may sometimes be identified with mythical figures or stories, the stars (*h₂stḗr) were not bound to any particular cosmic significance and were perceived as ornamental more than anything else.[36] According toMartin L. West, the idea of theworld-tree (L.axis mundi) is probably a later import from North Asiatic cosmologies: "The Greek myth might be derived from the Near East, and the Indic and Germanic ideas of a pillar from the shamanistic cosmologies of theFinno-Ugric and other peoples of central and northern Asia."[37]
There is no scholarly consensus as to which of the variants is the most accurate reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European cosmogonic myth.[38]Bruce Lincoln's reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European motif known as "Twin and Man" is supported by a number of scholars such asJaan Puhvel,J. P. Mallory,Douglas Q. Adams,David W. Anthony, and, in part,Martin L. West.[39] Although some thematic parallels can be made with traditions of the Ancient Near East, and even Polynesian or South American legends, Lincoln argues that the linguistic correspondences found in descendantcognates of*Manu and*Yemo make it very likely that the myth has a Proto-Indo-European origin.[40] According toEdgar C. Polomé, "some elements of the [Scandinavian myth of Ymir] are distinctively Indo-European", but the reconstruction proposed by Lincoln "makes too [many] unprovable assumptions to account for the fundamental changes implied by the Scandinavian version".[38]David A. Leeming also notes that the concept of theCosmic egg, symbolizing the primordial state from which the universe arises, is found in many Indo-European creation myths.[41]
Lincoln reconstructs acreation myth involving twin brothers,*Manu ("Man") and*Yemo ("Twin"), as the progenitors of the world and humankind, and a hero named*Trito ("Third") who ensured the continuity of the original sacrifice.[42][43][44] Regarding the primordial state that may have preceded the creation process, West notes that the Vedic, Norse and, at least partially, the Greek traditions give evidence of an era when the cosmological elements were absent, with similar formulae insisting on their non-existence: "neither non-being was nor being was at that time; there was not the air, nor the heaven beyond it" (Rigveda), "there was not sand nor sea nor the cool waves; earth was nowhere nor heaven above;Ginnungagap there was, but grass nowhere" (Völuspá), "there wasChasm and Night and darkErebos at first, and broadTartarus, but earth nor air nor heaven there was" (The Birds).[45][46]
In the creation myth, the first man*Manu and his twin*Yemo are crossing thecosmos, accompanied by the giant primordial cow. To create the world,*Manusacrifices his brother and, with the help of heavenly deities (theSky-Father, theStorm-God and theDivine Twins),[43][47] forges both the natural elements andhuman beings from his remains.*Manu thus becomes the first priest after initiating sacrifice as the primordial condition for the world order, and his deceased brother*Yemo the first king as social classes emerge from his anatomy (priesthood from his head, the warrior class from his breast and arms, and the commoners from his sexual organs and legs).[48][44] Although the European andIndo-Iranian versions differ on this matter, Lincoln argues that the primeval cow was most likely sacrificed in the original myth, giving birth to the other animals and vegetables, since thepastoral way of life ofProto-Indo-Iranian speakers was closer to that of Proto-Indo-European speakers.[49]
To the third man*Trito, the celestial gods then offer cattle as a divine gift, which is stolen by a three-headedserpent named*Ngʷhi ("serpent").[50]*Trito first suffers at his hands, but the hero eventually manages to overcome the monster, fortified by an intoxicating drink and aided by the Sky-Father. He eventually gives the recovered cattle back to a priest for it to be properly sacrificed.[51][43]*Trito is now the first warrior, maintaining through his heroic actions the cycle of mutual giving between gods and mortals.[52][43]
According to Lincoln,*Manu and*Yemo seem to be the protagonists of "a myth of the sovereign function, establishing the model for later priests and kings", while the legend of*Trito should be interpreted as "a myth of the warrior function, establishing the model for all later men of arms".[52] The myth indeed recalls theDuméziliantripartition of the cosmos between the priest (in both his magical and legal aspects), the warrior (the Third Man), and the herder (the cow).[43]
The story of*Trito served as a model for latercattle raiding epic myths and most likely as a moral justification for the practice of raiding among Indo-European peoples. In the original legend,*Trito is only taking back what rightfully belongs to his people, those who sacrifice properly to the gods.[52][53] The myth has been interpreted either as a cosmic conflict between the heavenly hero and the earthly serpent, or as an Indo-European victory over non-Indo-European people, the monster symbolizing the aboriginal thief or usurper.[54]
Some scholars have proposed that the primeval being*Yemo was depicted as a two-foldhermaphrodite rather than a twin brother of*Manu, both forming indeed a pair of complementary beings entwined together.[55][56] The Germanic namesYmir andTuisto were understood astwin,bisexual orhermaphrodite, and some myths give a sister to the Vedic Yama, also calledTwin and with whomincest is discussed.[57][58] In this interpretation, the primordial being may have self-sacrificed,[56] or have been divided in two, a male half and a female half, embodying a prototypal separation of the sexes.[55]
Cognates deriving from the Proto-Indo-European First Priest*Manu ("Man", "ancestor of mankind") include the IndicManu, legendary first man inHinduism, and Manāvī, his sacrificed wife; the GermanicMannus (Proto-Germanic: *Mannaz), mythical ancestor of theWest Germanic tribes; and the Persian Manūščihr (fromAves.Manūš.čiθra), aZoroastrian high priest of the 9th century AD.[59][60] From the name of the sacrificed First King*Yemo ("Twin") derive the IndicYama, god of death and the underworld; theAvestanYima, king of the golden age and guardian of hell; theNorseYmir (from PGmc.*Jumijaz), ancestor of the giants (jötnar); and, most likely,Remus (from Proto-Latin*Yemos or*Yemonos, with the initialy- shifting tor- under theinfluence ofRōmulus), killed in theRoman foundation myth by his twin brotherRomulus.[61][43][62] Cognates stemming from the First Warrior*Trito ("Third") include the VedicTrita, the AvestanThrita, and the Norseþriði.[63][64]
Many Indo-European beliefs explain the origin of natural elements as the result of the original dismemberment of*Yemo: his flesh usually becomes the earth, his hair grass, his bone yields stone, his blood water, his eyes the sun, his mind the moon, his brain the clouds, his breath the wind, and his head the heavens.[44] The traditions of sacrificing an animal to disperse its parts according to socially established patterns, a custom found in Ancient Rome and India, has been interpreted as an attempt to restore the balance of the cosmos ruled by the original sacrifice.[44]
The motif of*Manu and*Yemo has been influential throughout Eurasia following theIndo-European migrations. The Greek, Old Russian (Poem on the Dove King) and Jewish versions depend on the Iranian, and a Chinese version of the myth has been introduced from Ancient India.[65] The Armenian version of the myth of the First Warrior*Trito depends on the Iranian, and the Roman reflexes were influenced by earlier Greek versions.[66]
Linguistic evidence has led scholars to reconstruct the concept of*h₂értus, denoting 'what is fitting, rightly ordered', and ultimately deriving from the verbal root*h₂er-, 'to fit'. Descendant cognates includeHittiteāra ('right, proper');[67] Sanskritṛta ('divine/cosmic law, force of truth, or order');[68][69]Avestanarəta- ('order');Greekartús ('arrangement'), possiblyarete ('excellence') via the root*h₂erh₁ ('please, satisfy');[70]Latinartus ('joint');Tocharian Aārtt- ('to praise, be pleased with');Armenianard ('ornament, shape');Middle High Germanart ('innate feature, nature, fashion').[71]
Interwoven with the root*h₂er- ('to fit') is the verbal root*dʰeh₁-, which means 'to put, lay down, establish', but also 'speak, say; bring back'.[72][36][71] The Greekthémis and the Sanskritdhāman both derive from the PIE noun for the 'Law',*dʰeh₁-men-, literally 'that which is established'.[71] This notion of 'Law' includes anactive principle, denoting anactivityin obedience to the cosmic order*h₂értus, which in a social context is interpreted as alawful conduct: in the Greek daughter culture, the titanessThemis personifies the cosmic order and the rules of lawful conduct which derived from it,[73] and the Vedic code of lawful conduct, theDharma, can also be traced back to the PIE root*dʰeh₁-.[74] According toMartin L. West, the root*dʰeh₁- also denotes a divine or cosmic creation, as attested by the Hittite expressionnēbis dēgandāir ("established heaven (and) earth"), theYoung Avestan formulakə huvāpå raocåscādāt təmåscā? ("What skilful artificer made the regions of light and dark?"), the name of the Vedic creator godDhātr, and possibly by the Greek nymphThetis, presented as ademiurgical goddess inAlcman's poetry.[36]
Another root*yew(e)s- appears to be connected with ritualistic laws, as suggested by the Latiniūs ('law, right, justice, duty'), Avestanyaož-dā- ('make ritually pure'), and Sanskritśáṃca yóśca ('health and happiness'), with a derived adjective*yusi(iy)os seen inOld Irishuisse ('just right, fitting') and possiblyOld Church Slavonicistǔ ('actual, true').[71]
The realm of death was generally depicted as the Lower Darkness and the land of no return.[75] Many Indo-European myths relate a journey across a river, guided by an old man (*ǵerh₂ont-), in order to reach theOtherworld.[76] The Greek tradition of the dead being ferried across the riverStyx byCharon is probably a reflex of this belief, and the idea of crossing a river to reach the Underworld is also present throughout Celtic mythologies.[76] Several Vedic texts contain references to crossing a river (theVaitarna) in order to reach the land of the dead,[77] and the Latin wordtarentum ("tomb") originally meant "crossing point".[78] In Norse mythology,Hermóðr must cross a bridge over the river Giöll in order to reachHel and, in Latvian folk songs, the dead must cross a marsh rather than a river.[79] Traditions of placing coins on the bodies of the deceased in order to pay the ferryman are attested in both ancient Greek and early modern Slavic funerary practices; although the earliest coins date to theIron Age, this may provide evidence of an ancient tradition of giving offerings to the ferryman.[80]
In a recurrent motif, theOtherworld contains a gate, generally guarded by a multi-headed (sometimes multi-eyed) dog who could also serve as a guide and ensured that the ones who entered could not get out.[81][82] The GreekCerberus and the HinduŚárvara most likely derive from the common noun*kérberos ("spotted").[76][82] Bruce Lincoln has proposed a third cognate in the NorseGarmr,[83] although this has been debated as linguistically untenable.[84][note 3]
_Lekythos_with_Charon%2c_attributed_to_the_Tymbos_painter%2c_ca_500_-_450_BC%2c_Ashmolean_Museum%2c_Oxford%2c_UK_(22681344331).jpg)
Several traditions reveal traces of a Proto-Indo-Europeaneschatological myth that describes the end of the world following a cataclysmic battle.[86] The story begins when anarchdemon, usually coming from a different and inimical paternal line, assumes the position of authority among the community of the gods or heroes (NorseLoki, RomanTarquin, IrishBres). The subjects are treated unjustly by the new ruler, forced to erect fortifications while the archdemon instead favors outsiders, on whom his support relies. After a particularly heinous act, the archdemon is exiled by his subjects and takes refuge among his foreign relatives.[87] A new leader (NorseVíðarr, RomanLucius Brutus, Old IrishLug), known as the "silent one" and usually the nephew or grandson (*népōt) of the exiled archdemon, then springs up, and the two forces come together to annihilate each other in a cataclysmic battle. The myth ends with the interruption of the cosmic order and the conclusion of a temporal cyclic era.[88] In the Norse and Iranian traditions, a cataclysmic "cosmic winter" precedes the final battle.[89][88]
In the cosmological model proposed byJean Haudry, the Proto-Indo-European sky is composed of three "heavens" (diurnal, nocturnal and liminal) rotating around anaxis mundi, each having its own deities, social associations and colors (white, dark and red, respectively). Deities of the diurnal sky could not transgress the domain of the nocturnal sky, inhabited by its own sets of gods and by the spirits of the dead. For instance, Zeus cannot extend his power to the nightly sky in theIliad. In this vision, theliminal or transitional sky embodies the gate or frontier (dawn andtwilight) binding the two other heavens.[90][91]
Proto-Indo-Europeans may have believed that the peripheral part of the Earth (theends of the Earth) was inhabited by a people exempt from the hardships and pains that arise from thehuman condition. The common motif is suggested by the legends of the IndicŚvetadvīpam ("White Island"), whose inhabitants shine white like the Moon and need no food; the GreekHyperborea ("Beyond the North Wind"), where the Sun shines all the time and the men know "neither disease nor bitter old age"; the IrishTír na nÓg ("Land of the Young"), a mythical region located in the western sea where "happiness lasts forever and there is no satiety";[92] or the GermanicÓdáinsakr ("Glittering Plains"), a land situated beyond the Ocean where "no one is permitted to die".[93]
The archaicProto-Indo-European language (4500–4000)[note 4] had a two-gender system which originally distinguished words between animate and inanimate, a system used to separate a common term from its deified synonym. For instance,fire as an active principle was*h₁n̥gʷnis (Latinignis; SanskritAgní), while the inanimate, physical entity was*péh₂ur (Greekpyr; Englishfire).[94] During this period, Proto-Indo-European beliefs were stillanimistic and their language did not yet make formal distinctions between masculine and feminine, although it is likely that each deity was already conceived as either male or female.[95] Most of the goddesses attested in later Indo-European mythologies come from pre-Indo-European deities eventually assimilated into the various pantheons following themigrations, like the GreekAthena, the RomanJuno, the IrishMedb, or the IranianAnahita. Diversely personified, they were frequently seen as fulfilling multiple functions, while Proto-Indo-European goddesses shared a lack of personification and narrow functionalities as a general characteristic.[96] The most well-attested female Indo-European deities include*H₂éwsōs, the Dawn,*Dʰéǵʰōm, the Earth, and*Seh₂ul, the Sun.[8][97]
It is not probable that the Proto-Indo-Europeans had a fixed canon of deities or assigned a specific number to them.[98] The term for "a god" was*deywós ("celestial"), derived from the root*dyew, which denoted the bright sky or the light of day. It has numerous reflexes in Latindeus, Old NorseTýr (<PGmc.*tīwaz), Sanskritdevá,Avestandaeva, Old Irishdía, or LithuanianDievas.[99][100] In contrast, human beings were synonymous of "mortals" and associated with the "earthly" (*dʰéǵʰōm), likewise the source of words for "man, human being" in various languages.[101] Proto-Indo-Europeans believed the gods to be exempt from death and disease because they were nourished by special aliments, usually not available to mortals: in theChāndogya Upaniṣad, "the gods, of course, neither eat nor drink. They become sated by just looking at this nectar", while theEdda states that "on wine alone the weapon-lordOdin ever lives ... he needs no food; wine is to him both drink and meat".[102] Sometimes concepts could also be deified, such as theAvestanmazdā ("wisdom"), worshipped asAhura Mazdā ("Lord Wisdom"); the Greek god of warAres (connected withἀρή, "ruin, destruction"); or the Vedic protector of treatiesMitráh (frommitrám, "contract").[103]
Gods had several titles, typically "the celebrated", "the highest", "king", or "shepherd", with the notion that deities had their own idiom and true names which might be kept secret from mortals in some circumstances.[104] In Indo-European traditions, gods were seen as the "dispensers" or the "givers of good things" (*déh₃tōr h₁uesuom).[105] Although certain individual deities were charged with the supervision of justice or contracts, in general the Indo-European gods did not have an ethical character. Their immense power, which they could exercise at their pleasure, necessitated rituals, sacrifices and praise songs from worshipers to ensure they would in return bestow prosperity to the community.[106] The idea that gods were in control of the nature was translated in the suffix*-nos (feminine*-nā), which signified "lord of".[107] According to West, it is attested in GreekOuranos ("lord of rain") andHelena ("mistress of sunlight"), Germanic*Wōðanaz ("lord of frenzy"), GaulishEpona ("goddess of horses"), LithuanianPerkūnas ("lord of oaks"), and in RomanNeptunus ("lord of waters"),Volcanus ("lord of fire-glare") andSilvanus ("lord of woods").[107]
Linguists have been able to reconstruct the names of some deities in theProto-Indo-European language (PIE) from many types of sources. Some of the proposed deity names are more readily accepted among scholars than others. According to philologistMartin L. West, "the clearest cases are the cosmic and elemental deities: theSky-god, his partnerEarth, and histwin sons; the Sun, the Sun Maiden, and theDawn; gods ofstorm, wind, water, fire; and terrestrial presences such as the Rivers, spring and forest nymphs, and a god of the wild who guards roads and herds".[8]
The most securely reconstructed genealogy of the Proto-Indo-European gods (Götterfamilie) is given as follows:[108][2][109]
| Dyēws Daylight-Sky | Dhéǵhōm Earth | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| TheDivine Twins | The Sun Maiden | Hausōs Dawn | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| An alternative genealogy has been proposed by P. Jackson (2002):[110] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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The head deity of the Proto-Indo-European pantheon was the god*Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr,[111] whose name literally means "Sky Father".[111][112][113] Regarded as the Sky or Day conceived as a divine entity, and thus the dwelling of the gods, the Heaven,[114]' Dyēws is, by far, the most well-attested of all the Proto-Indo-European deities.[18][115] As the gateway to the gods and the father of both theDivine Twins and the goddess of the dawn (Hausos), Dyēws was a prominent deity in the pantheon.[116][117] He was however likely not their ruler, or the holder of the supreme power likeZeus andJupiter.[118][119]
Due to his celestial nature, Dyēus is often described as "all-seeing", or "with wide vision" in Indo-European myths. It is unlikely however that he was in charge of the supervision of justice and righteousness, as it was the case for the Zeus or theIndo-IranianMithra–Varuna duo; but he was suited to serve at least as a witness to oaths and treaties.[120]
The Greek god Zeus and the Roman god Jupiter both appear as the head gods of their respective pantheons.[121][113]*Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr is also attested in theRigveda asDyáus Pitā, a minor ancestor figure mentioned in only a few hymns, and in the Illyrian godDei-Pátrous, attested once byHesychius of Alexandria.[122] The ritual expressionsDebess tēvs in Latvian andattas Isanus in Hittite are not exact descendants of the formula*Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr, but they do preserve its original structure.[18]
*H₂éusōs has been reconstructed as the Proto-Indo-European goddess of the dawn.[123][124] In three traditions (Indic, Greek, Baltic), the Dawn is the "daughter of heaven",*Dyḗws. In these three branches plus a fourth (Italic), the reluctant dawn-goddess is chased or beaten from the scene for tarrying.[125][116] An ancient epithet designating the Dawn appears to have been*Dʰuǵh₂tḗr Diwós, "Sky Daughter".[97] Depicted as opening the gates of Heaven when she appears at the beginning of the day,[126] Hausōs is generally seen as never-ageing or born again each morning.[127] Associated with red or golden cloths, she is often portrayed as dancing.[128]
Twenty-one hymns in theRigveda are dedicated to the dawn goddessUṣás and a single passage from theAvesta honors the dawn goddess Ušå. The dawn goddessEos appears prominently in early Greek poetry and mythology. The Roman dawn goddessAurora is a reflection of the Greek Eos, but the original Roman dawn goddess may have continued to be worshipped under the cultic titleMater Matuta.[129] The Anglo-Saxons worshipped the goddessĒostre, who was associated with a festival in spring which later gave its name to a month, which gave its name to the Christian holiday ofEaster in English. The nameÔstarmânôth inOld High German has been taken as an indication that a similar goddess was also worshipped in southern Germany. The Lithuanian dawn goddessAušra was still acknowledged in the sixteenth century.[129]
*Seh₂ul and*Meh₁not are reconstructed as the Proto-Indo-European deity of the Sun and deity of the Moon respectively. Their gender varies according to the different mythologies of the Indo-European peoples.[130][131]
The daily course of*Seh₂ul across the sky on a horse-driven chariot is a common motif among Indo-European myths.[note 5] While it is probably inherited, the motif certainly appeared after the introduction of the wheel in thePontic–Caspian steppe about 3500 BC, and is therefore a late addition to Proto-Indo-European culture.[125]
Although the sun was personified as an independent deity,[97] the Proto-Indo-Europeans also visualized the sun as the "lamp of Dyēws" or the "eye of Dyēws";[133]
TheHorse Twins are a set of twin brothers found throughout nearly every Indo-European pantheon who usually have a name that means 'horse',*h₁éḱwos,[117] although the names are not always cognate, and no Proto-Indo-European name for them can be reconstructed.[117]
In most traditions, the Horse Twins are brothers of the Sun Maiden or Dawn goddess, and the sons of the sky god,*Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr.[116][134] TheGreekDioscuri (Castor and Pollux) are the "sons ofZeus"; theVedicDivó nápātā (Aśvins) are the "sons ofDyaús", the sky-god; theLithuanianDievo sūneliai (Ašvieniai) are the "sons of the God" (Dievas); and theLatvianDieva dēli are likewise the "sons of the God" (Dievs).[135][136]
Represented as young men and the steeds who pull the sun across the sky, the Divine Twins rode horses (sometimes they were depicted as horses themselves) and rescued men from mortal peril in battle or at sea.[137] The Divine Twins are often differentiated: one is represented as a young warrior while the other is seen as a healer or concerned with domestic duties.[117] In most tales where they appear, the Divine Twins rescue the Dawn from a watery peril, a theme that emerged from their role as the solar steeds.[138][139] At night, the horses of the sun returned to the east in a golden boat, where they traversed the sea[note 6] to bring back the Sun each morning. During the day, they crossed the sky in pursuit of their consort, the morning star.[139]
Other reflexes may be found in theAnglo-SaxonHengist andHorsa (whose names mean "stallion" and "horse"), the Celtic "Dioskouroi" said byTimaeus to be venerated by Atlantic Celts as a set of horse twins, theGermanicAlcis, a pair of young male brothers worshipped by theNaharvali,[141] or the WelshBrân andManawydan.[117] The horse twins could have been based on the morning and evening star (the planetVenus) and they often have stories about them in which they "accompany" the Sun goddess, because of the close orbit of the planet Venus to the sun.[142]
Although the etymological association is often deemed untenable,[143] some scholars (such asGeorges Dumézil[144] and S. K. Sen) have proposed*Worunos or*Werunos (also the eponymous god in the reconstructed dialogueThe king and the god) as the nocturnal sky and benevolent counterpart of Dyēws, with possible cognates in GreekOuranos and VedicVaruna, from the PIE root*woru- ("to encompass, cover"). Worunos may have personified the firmament, or dwelled in the night sky. In both Greek and Vedic poetry, Ouranos and Varuna are portrayed as "wide-looking", bounding or seizing their victims, and having or being a heavenly "seat".[145] In the three-sky cosmological model, the celestial phenomena linking the nightly and daily skies is embodied by a "Binder-god": the GreekKronos, a transitional deity between Ouranos and Zeus inHesiod'sTheogony, the IndicSavitṛ, associated with the rising and setting of the sun in theVedas, and the RomanSaturnus, whose feast marked the period immediately preceding thewinter solstice.[146][147]
Some scholars have proposed a consort goddess named*Diwōnā or*Diuōneh₂,[148][145] a spouse ofDyēws with a possible descendant in the Greek goddessDione. A thematic echo may also occur inVedic India, as bothIndra's wifeIndrānī andZeus's consort Dione display a jealous and quarrelsome disposition under provocation. A second descendant may be found in Dia, a mortal said to unite with Zeus in a Greek myth. The story leads ultimately to the birth of theCentaurs after the mating of Dia's husbandIxion with the phantom ofHera, the spouse of Zeus. The reconstruction is however only attested in those two traditions and therefore not secured.[149] The GreekHera, the RomanJuno, the GermanicFrigg and the IndicShakti are often depicted as the protectress of marriage and fertility, or as the bestowal of the gift of prophecy.James P. Mallory andDouglas Q. Adams note however that "these functions are much too generic to support the supposition of a distinct PIE 'consort goddess' and many of the 'consorts' probably represent assimilations of earlier goddesses who may have had nothing to do with marriage."[150]
The substratum of Proto-Indo-European mythology isanimistic.[103][151] This native animism is still reflected in the Indo-European daughter cultures.[152][153][154] In Norse mythology theVættir are for instance reflexes of the native animisticnature spirits and deities.[155][page needed] Trees have a central position in Indo-European daughter cultures, and are thought to be the abode oftree spirits.[154][156]
In Indo-European tradition, thestorm is deified as a highly active, assertive, and sometimes aggressive element; the fire and water are deified as cosmic elements that are also necessary for the functioning of the household;[157] the deifiedearth is associated with fertility and growth on the one hand, and with death and the underworld on the other.[158]
Theearth goddess,*Dʰéǵʰōm, is portrayed as the vast and dark house of mortals, in contrast with Dyēws, the bright sky and seat of the immortal gods.[159] She is associated with fertility and growth, but also with death as the final dwelling of the deceased.[158] She was likely the consort of the sky father,*Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr.[160][161] The duality is associated with fertility, as the crop grows from her moist soil, nourished by the rain of Dyēws.[162] The Earth is thus portrayed as the giver of good things: she is exhorted to become pregnant in anOld English prayer; and Slavic peasants described Zemlja-matushka, Mother Earth, as a prophetess that shall offer favorable harvest to the community.[161][163] The unions of Zeus with Semele and Demeter is likewise associated with fertility and growth inGreek mythology.[163] This pairing is further attested in the Vedic pairing of Dyáus Pitā andPrithvi Mater,[160] the Greek pairing ofOuranos andGaia,[164][161] the Roman pairing of Jupiter andTellus Mater fromMacrobius'sSaturnalia,[160] and the Norse pairing ofOdin andJörð. Although Odin is not a reflex of*Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr, his cult may have subsumed aspects of an earlier chief deity who was.[165] The Earth and Heaven couple is however not at the origin of the other gods, as theDivine Twins andHausos were probably conceived byDyēws alone.[140]
Cognates include the AlbanianDheu and Zonja e Dheut, Great Mother Earth and Earth Goddess, respectively;Žemyna, a Lithuanian goddess of earth celebrated as the bringer of flowers; the AvestanZām, the Zoroastrian concept of 'earth'; Zemes Māte ("Mother Earth"), one of the goddesses of death inLatvian mythology; the Hittite Dagan-zipas ("Genius of the Earth"); theSlavic Mati Syra Zemlya ("Mother Moist Earth"); the Greek Chthôn (Χθών), the partner ofOuranos inAeschylus'Danaids, and thechthonic deities of the underworld. The possibilities of aThracian goddess Zemelā (*gʰem-elā) and aMessapic goddess Damatura (*dʰǵʰem-māter), at the origin of the GreekSemele andDemeter respectively, are less secured.[161][166] The commonest epithets attached to the Earth goddess are*Pleth₂-wih₁ (the "Broad One"), attested in the VedicPṛthvī, the Greek Plataia and GaulishLitavis,[35][167] and*Pleth₂-wih₁ Méh₂tēr ("Mother Broad One"), attested in the Vedic and Old English formulasPṛthvī Mātā andFīra Mōdor.[167][161] Other frequent epithets include the "All-Bearing One", the one who bears all things or creatures, and the "mush-nourishing" or the "rich-pastured".[168][159]
*Perkʷunos has been reconstructed as the Proto-Indo-European god of lightning and storms. It either meant "the Striker" or "the Lord of Oaks",[169][107] and he was probably represented as holding a hammer or a similar weapon.[125][170] Thunder and lightning had both a destructive and regenerative connotation: a lightning bolt can cleave a stone or a tree, but is often accompanied with fructifying rain. This likely explains the strong association between the thunder-god andoaks in some traditions (oak being among the densest of trees is most prone to lightning strikes).[125] He is often portrayed in connection with stone and (wooded) mountains, probably because the mountainous forests were his realm.[171] The striking of devils, demons or evildoers by Perkʷunos is a motif encountered in the myths surrounding the LithuanianPerkūnas and the VedicParjanya, a possible cognate, but also in the GermanicThor, a thematic echo of Perkʷunos.[172][173]
The deities generally agreed to becognates stemming from*Perkʷunos are confined to the European continent, and he could have been a motif developed later in Western Indo-European traditions. The evidence include the Norse goddessFjǫrgyn (the mother ofThor), the Lithuanian godPerkūnas, the Slavic godPerúnú, and the CelticHercynian (Herkynío) mountains or forests.[174]Perëndi, an Albanian thunder-god (from the stemper-en-, "to strike", attached to -di, "sky", from*dyews-) is also a probable cognate.[175][176][173] The evidence could extend to the Vedic tradition if one adds the god of rain, thunder and lightningParjánya, although Sanskritsound laws rather predict a *parkūn(y)a form.[177][178]
From another root*(s)tenh₂ ("thunder") stems a group of cognates found in the Germanic, Celtic and Roman thunder-godsThor,Taranis,(Jupiter) Tonans and (Zeus) Keraunos.[179][180] According to Jackson, "they may have arisen as the result of fossilisation of an original epithet orepiclesis", as the VedicParjanya is also calledstanayitnú- ("Thunderer").[181] The Roman godMars may be a thematic echo of Perkʷunos, since he originally had thunderer characteristics.[182]
Although the linguistic evidence is restricted to the Vedic and Balto-Slavic traditions, scholars have proposed that Proto-Indo-Europeans conceived the fire as a divine entity called*h₁n̥gʷnis.[29][183] "Seen from afar" and "untiring", the Indic deityAgni is pictured in theRigveda as the god of both terrestrial and celestial fires. He embodied the flames of the sun and the lightning, as well as the forest fire, the domestic hearth fire and the sacrificial altar, linking heaven and earth in a ritual dimension.[29] Another group of cognates deriving from theBalto-Slavic*ungnis ("fire") is also attested.[184]Early modern sources report that Lithuanian priests worshipped a "holy Fire" namedUgnis (szwenta), which they tried to maintain in perpetual life, whileUguns (māte) was revered as the "Mother of Fire" by the Latvians. Tenth-century Persian sources give evidence of the veneration of fire among theSlavs, and later sources inOld Church Slavonic attest theworship of fire (ogonĭ), occurring under the divine nameSvarožič, who has been interpreted as the son ofSvarog.[185][186]
The name of the fire god in theAlbanian pagan mythology –Enji, from PIE*h₁n̥gʷnis – is evidently contained in the week day name that was dedicated to him –e enjte – theAlbanian word forThursday. He is thought to have been worshiped by theIllyrians in antiquity, being the most prominent god of the pantheon when week day names were formed in the Albanian language.[189] In Albanian tradition, the fire –zjarri – isdeified, with the power toward off evil and darkness, give strength to the Sun (Dielli, who is worshiped as thegod of light and giver of life), sustain the continuity between life and afterlife and between the generations. The divine power of fire is used by Albanians for thehearth and therituals, including calendar fires,sacrificial offerings,divination,purification, and protection from big storms and other potentially harmful events. The Albanian fire worship and rituals are associated with the cult of the Sun, the cult of the hearth (vatër) and theancestor, and the cult of fertility inagriculture andanimal husbandry.[190]
In other traditions, as the sacral name of the dangerous fire may have become aword taboo,[29] the reflexes of the Indo-European root*h₁n̥gʷnis served instead as an ordinary term for fire, as in the Latinignis.[191]
Scholars generally agree that the cult of the hearth dates back to Proto-Indo-European times.[186] The domestic fire had to be tended with care and given offerings, and if one moved house, one carried fire from the old to the new home.[186] TheAvestanĀtar was the sacral and hearth fire, often personified and honored as a god.[29] InAlbanian beliefs,Nëna e Vatrës ("the Hearth Mother") is the goddess protector of the domestic hearth (vatër).[192][193]Herodotus reported aScythian goddess of hearth namedTabiti, a term likely given under a slightly distorted guise, as she might represent a feminine participial form corresponding to anIndo-Iranian god named *Tapatī, "the Burning one". The sacral or domestic hearth can likewise be found in the Greek and Roman hearth goddessesHestia andVesta, two names that may derive from the PIE root*h₁w-es- ("burning").[29][183] Both the ritual fires set in the temples of Vesta and the domestic fires of ancient India were circular, rather than the square form reserved for public worship in India and for the other gods in Roman antiquity.[194] Additionally, the custom that the bride circles the hearth three times is common to Indian, Ossetian, Slavic, Baltic, and German traditions, while a newly born child was welcomed into a Greek household when the father circled the hearth carrying it in theAmphidromia ceremony.[186]
Based on the similarity of motifs attested over a wide geographical extent, it is very likely that Proto-Indo-European beliefs featured some sorts of beautiful and sometimes dangerous water goddesses who seduced mortal men, akin to the Greeknaiads, thenymphs of fresh waters.[195] The VedicApsarás are said to frequent forest lakes, rivers, trees, and mountains. They are of outstanding beauty, andIndra sends them to lure men. InOssetic mythology, the waters are ruled byDonbettyr ("Water-Peter"), who has daughters of extraordinary beauty and with golden hair. InArmenian folklore, the Parik take the form of beautiful women who dance amid nature. The Slavonic water nymphsvíly are also depicted as alluring maidens with long golden or green hair who like young men and can do harm if they feel offended.[196] The Albanian mountain nymphs,Perit andZana, are portrayed as beautiful but also dangerous creatures. Similar to the Baltic nymph-like Laumes, they have the habit of abducting children. The beautiful and long-haired Laumes also have sexual relations and short-lived marriages with men. TheBretonKorrigans are irresistible creatures with golden hair wooing mortal men and causing them to perish for love.[197] The NorseHuldra, IranianAhuraīnīs and Lycian Eliyãna can likewise be regarded as reflexes of the water nymphs.[198]
A wide range of linguistic and cultural evidence attest the holy status of the terrestrial (potable) waters*h₂ep-, venerated collectively as "the Waters" or divided into "Rivers and Springs".[199] The cults of fountains and rivers, which may have preceded Proto-Indo-European beliefs by tens of thousands of years, was also prevalent in their tradition.[200] Some authors have proposed*Neptonos or*H₂epom Nepōts as the Proto-Indo-European god of the waters. The name literally means "Grandson [orNephew] of the Waters".[201][202] Linguists reconstruct his name from that of the Vedic godApám Nápát, the Roman godNeptūnus, and the Old Irish godNechtain. Although such a god has been solidly reconstructed inProto-Indo-Iranian religion, Mallory and Adams nonetheless still reject him as a Proto-Indo-European deity on linguistic grounds.[202]
A river goddess*Deh₂nu- has been proposed based on the Vedic goddessDānu, the Irish goddessDanu, the Welsh goddessDôn and the names of the riversDanube,Don,Dnieper, andDniester. Mallory and Adams however note that while the lexical correspondence is probable, "there is really no evidence for a specific river goddess" in Proto-Indo-European mythology "other than the deification of the concept of 'river' in Indic tradition".[203] Some have also proposed the reconstruction of a sea god named*Trih₂tōn based on the Greek godTriton and the Old Irish wordtrïath, meaning "sea". Mallory and Adams also reject this reconstruction as having no basis, asserting that the "lexical correspondence is only just possible and with no evidence of a cognate sea god in Irish."[203]
Evidence for the deification of the wind is found in most Indo-European traditions. The root*h₂weh₁ ("to blow") is at the origin of the two words for the wind:*H₂weh₁-yú- and*H₂w(e)h₁-nt-.[204][205] The deity is indeed often depicted as a couple in theIndo-Iranian tradition.Vayu-Vāta is a dual divinity in theAvesta, Vāta being associated with the stormy winds and described as coming from everywhere ("from below, from above, from in front, from behind"). Similarly, the VedicVāyu, the lord of the winds, is connected in theVedas withIndra—the king ofSvarga Loka (also called Indraloka)—while the other deity Vāta represents a more violent sort of wind and is instead associated withParjanya—the god of rain and thunder.[205] Othercognates include Hitt.huwant-, Lith.vėjas,Toch. Byente, Lat.uentus,PGmc.*windaz, or Welshgwynt.[205] The SlavicViy is another possible equivalent entity.[206] Based on these different traditions, Yaroslav Vassilkov postulated a proto-Indo-European wind deity which "was probably marked by ambivalence, and combined in itself both positive and negative characteristics". This god is hypothesized to have been linked to life and death through adding and taking breath from people.[206][207]
The association between the Greek godPan and the Vedic godPūshan was first identified in 1924 by German linguistHermann Collitz.[208][209] Both were worshipped as pastoral deities, which led scholars to reconstruct*Péh₂usōn ("Protector") as a pastoral god guarding roads and herds.[210][211][212] He may have had an unfortunate appearance, a bushy beard and a keen sight.[213][212] He was also closely affiliated with goats or bucks: Pan has goat's legs while goats are said to pull the car of Pūshān (the animal was also sacrificed to him on occasion).[212][214]
Jaan Puhvel has proposed a cattle god called*Welnos which he links to the Slavic godVeles, the Lithuanian godVelnias, and less certainly to Old NorseUllr.[215]
In 1855,Adalbert Kuhn suggested that the Proto-Indo-Europeans may have believed in a set of helper deities, whom he reconstructed based on the Germanicelves and the Hinduribhus.[216] Although this proposal is often mentioned in academic writings, very few scholars actually accept it since thecognate relationship is linguistically difficult to justify.[217][218] While stories of elves, satyrs, goblins and giants show recurrent traits in Indo-European traditions, West notes that "it is difficult to see so coherent an overall pattern as with the nymphs. It is unlikely that the Indo-Europeans had no concept of such creatures, but we cannot define with any sharpness of outline what their conceptions were."[219] A wild god named*Rudlos has also been proposed, based on the VedicRudrá and theOld Russian Rŭglŭ. Problematic is whether the name derives from*rewd- ("rend, tear apart"; akin to Lat.rullus, "rustic"), or rather from*rew- ("howl").[203]
Although the name of the divinities are not cognates, a horse goddess portrayed as bearing twins and in connection with fertility and marriage has been proposed based on the GaulishEpona, IrishMacha and WelshRhiannon, with other thematic echos in the Greek and Indic traditions.[220][221]Demeter transformed herself into a mare when she was raped byPoseidon appearing as a stallion, and she gave birth to a daughter and a horse,Areion. Similarly, the Indic tradition tells ofSaranyu fleeing from her husband Vivásvat when she assumed the form of a mare. Vivásvat metamorphosed into a stallion and of their intercourse were born the twin horses, theAśvins. The Irish goddess Macha gave birth to twins, a mare and a boy, and the Welsh figure Rhiannon bore a child who was reared along with a horse.[222]
It is highly probable that the Proto-Indo-Europeans believed inthree fate goddesses whospun the destinies of mankind.[223] Although such fate goddesses are not directly attested in the Indo-Aryan tradition, theAtharvaveda does contain an allusion comparing fate to awarp. Furthermore, the three Fates appear in nearly every other Indo-European mythology. The earliest attested set of fate goddesses are theGulses in Hittite mythology, who were said to preside over the individual destinies of human beings. They often appear in mythical narratives alongside the goddesses Papaya and Istustaya, who, in a ritual text for the foundation of a new temple, are described sitting holding mirrors and spindles, spinning the king's thread of life.[224] In the Greek tradition, theMoirai ("Apportioners") are mentioned dispensing destiny in both theIliad and theOdyssey, in which they are given the epithet Κλῶθες (Klothes, meaning "Spinners").[225][226]
In Hesiod'sTheogony, the Moirai are said to "give mortal men both good and ill" and their names are listed asKlotho ("Spinner"),Lachesis ("Apportioner"), andAtropos ("Inflexible").[227][228] In hisRepublic,Plato records that Klotho sings of the past, Lachesis of the present, and Atropos of the future.[229] In Roman legend, theParcae were three goddesses who presided over the births of children and whose names were Nona ("Ninth"), Decuma ("Tenth"), and Morta ("Death"). They too were said to spin destinies, although this may have been due to influence from Greek literature.[228]
In the Old NorseVöluspá andGylfaginning, theNorns are three cosmic goddesses of fate who are described sitting by the well ofUrðr at the foot of the world treeYggdrasil.[230][231][note 7] In Old Norse texts, the Norns are frequently conflated withValkyries, who are sometimes also described as spinning.[231] Old English texts, such asRhyme Poem 70, andGuthlac 1350 f., referenceWyrd as a singular power that "weaves" destinies.[232]
Later texts mention the Wyrds as a group, withGeoffrey Chaucer referring to them as "the Werdys that we clepyn Destiné" inThe Legend of Good Women.[233][229][note 8] A goddess spinning appears in abracteate from southwest Germany and a relief fromTrier shows three mother goddesses, with two of them holding distaffs. Tenth-century German ecclesiastical writings denounce the popular belief in three sisters who determined the course of a man's life at his birth.[229] An Old Irish hymn attests to seven goddesses who were believed to weave the thread of destiny, which demonstrates that these spinster fate-goddesses were present in Celtic mythology as well.[234]
A Lithuanian folktale recorded in 1839 recounts that a man's fate is spun at his birth by seven goddesses known as thedeivės valdytojos and used to hang a star in the sky; when he dies, his thread snaps and his star falls as a meteor. In Latvian folk songs, a goddess called theLáima is described as weaving a child's fate at its birth. Although she is usually only one goddess, the Láima sometimes appears as three.[234] The three spinning fate goddesses appear in Slavic traditions in the forms of the Russian Rožanicy, the Czech and Slovak Sudičky, the Bulgarian Narenčnice or Urisnice, the Polish Rodzanice, the Croatian Rodjenice, the SerbianSudjenice, and the Slovene Rojenice.[235] Albanian folk tales speak of theFatit, three old women who appear three days after a child is born and determine its fate, using language reminiscent of spinning.[236]
The god*h₂eryo-men has been reconstructed[dubious –discuss] as a deity in charge of welfare and the community,[dubious –discuss] connected to the building and maintenance of roads or pathways, but also with healing and the institution of marriage.[237][238] It derives from the noun*h₂eryos (a "member of one's own group", "one who belongs to the community", in contrast to an outsider), also at the origin of theIndo-Iranian*árya, "noble, hospitable", and theCeltic*aryo-, "free man" (Old Irish:aire, "noble, chief";Gaulish:arios, "free man, lord").[239][240][241][242] The Vedic godAryaman is frequently mentioned in theVedas, and associated with social and marital ties. In theGāthās, the Iranian godAiryaman seems to denote the wider tribal network or alliance, and is invoked in a prayer against illness, magic, and evil.[238] In the mythical stories of the founding of the Irish nation, the heroÉrimón became the first king of theMilesians (the mythical name of the Irish) after he helped conquer the island from theTuatha Dé Danann. He also provided wives to theCruithnig (the mythicalCeltic Britons orPicts), a reflex of the marital functions of*h₂eryo-men.[243] The Gaulish given name Ariomanus, possibly translated as "lord-spirited" and generally borne by Germanic chiefs, is also to be mentioned.[242]
Although the name of a particular smith god cannot be linguistically reconstructed,[202] smith gods of various names are found in most Proto-Indo-European daughter languages. There is not a strong argument for a single mythic prototype.[244] Mallory notes that "deities specifically concerned with particular craft specializations may be expected in any ideological system whose people have achieved an appropriate level of social complexity".[245] Nonetheless, two motifs recur frequently in Indo-European traditions: the making of the chief god's distinctive weapon (Indra's andZeus' bolt;Lugh's andOdin's spear andThor's hammer) by a special artificer, and the craftsman god's association with the immortals' drinking.[102]
Scholars have suggested a common root,*PriHyéh₂,[citation needed]*Prëwyâ/*Prëwyos[246] or ?*PriHtu8, for theSanskritpriya, GreekAphrodite,Mycenaean Greek theonympe-re-wa₂, likely relatedPamphylianΠρεͷα (Prewa)[246] and Common GermanicFrijjō,[247]: 568–573 that would point to a Proto-Indo-European love god or goddess.
*PriH- is a root for beloved/friend[247]: 268 , whereas*PriHyéh₂ means "wife" or "beloved wife"[note 9] and has descendant forms in many Indo-European languages. It is ancestral toSanskritpriya "dear, beloved" and Common GermanicFrijjō.[247]
In LatinVenus takes her place. Her name is not cognate at all, but Norse descendants of*PriHyéh₂,Freyr andFreyja belong to the race of so-calledVanir, which comes from the same Proto-Indo-European root*wenh₁-.[248] Freyja is possibly worshipped under the name Perun in southern Slavic-speaking areas.[249] In Albanian she isPerendi, Christianized as St. Prendi. J. Grimm refers to an Old Bohemian formPříje, used as a gloss for Venus inMater Verborum.[250] Many of these goddesses give their name to the fifth day of the week, Friday. They are also very well known in lesser form such as the GermanicElves and the PersianPeris, charming and seductive beings in folklore.[249]
There are also masculine forms of this deity, Greek Priapos, borrowed into Latin asPriapus;[citation needed] and Old NorseFreyr.[249]
The Proto-Indo-Europeans may also have had a goddess who presided over thetrifunctional organization of society. Various epithets of the Iranian goddessAnahita and the Roman goddessJuno provide sufficient evidence to solidly attest that she was probably worshipped, but no specific name for her can be lexically reconstructed.[251] Vague remnants of this goddess may also be preserved in the Greek goddessAthena.[252] A decay goddess has also been proposed on the basis of the VedicNirṛti and the RomanLūa Mater. Her names derive from the verbal roots "decay, rot", and they are both associated with the decomposition of human bodies.[203]
Michael Estell has reconstructed a mythical craftsman named*H₃r̥bʰew based on the GreekOrpheus and the VedicRibhus. Both are the son of a cudgel-bearer or an archer, and both are known as "fashioners" (*tetḱ-).[253] A mythical hero named*Promāth₂ew has also been proposed, from the Greek heroPrometheus ("the one who steals"), who took the heavenly fire away from the gods to bring it to mankind, and the VedicMātariśvan, the mythical bird who "robbed" (found in the myth aspra math-, "to steal") the hidden fire and gave it to theBhrigus.[214][254] A medical god has been reconstructed based on a thematic comparison between the Indic godRudra and the GreekApollo. Both inflict disease from afar thanks to their bows, both are known as healers, and both are specifically associated with rodents: Rudra's animal is the "rat mole" and Apollo was known as a "rat god".[203]
Some scholars have proposed a war god named*Māwort- based on the Roman godMars and the VedicMarutás, the companions of the war-godIndra. Mallory and Adams reject this reconstruction on linguistic grounds.[255] Likewise, some researchers have found it more plausible that Mars was originally a storm deity, while the same cannot be said of Ares.[182]
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Myths
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One common myth found in nearly all Indo-European mythologies is a battle ending with ahero orgod slaying aserpent ordragon of some sort.[256][257][258] Although the details of the story often vary widely, several features remain remarkably the same in all iterations. The protagonist of the story is usually athunder-god, or a hero somehow associated with thunder.[109] His enemy the serpent is generally associated with water and depicted as multi-headed, or else "multiple" in some other way.[258] Indo-European myths often describe the creature as a "blocker of waters", and his many heads get eventually smashed by the thunder-god in an epic battle, releasing torrents of water that had previously been pent up.[259] The original legend may have symbolized theChaoskampf, a clash between forces of order and chaos.[260] The dragon or serpent loses in every version of the story, although in some mythologies, such as theNorseRagnarök myth, the hero or the god dies with his enemy during the confrontation.[261] HistorianBruce Lincoln has proposed that the dragon-slaying tale and the creation myth of*Trito killing the serpent*Ngʷhi may actually belong to the same original story.[262][263]
Reflexes of the Proto-Indo-European dragon-slaying myth appear in most Indo-European poetic traditions, where the myth has left traces of the formulaic sentence*(h₁e) gʷʰent h₁ógʷʰim, meaning "[he] slew the serpent".[264]
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InHittite mythology, the storm godTarhunt slays the giant serpentIlluyanka,[265] as does the Vedic godIndra the multi-headed serpentVritra, which has been causing a drought by trapping the waters in his mountain lair.[259]
[266] Several variations of the story are also found inGreek mythology.[267] The original motif appears inherited in the legend ofZeus slaying the hundred-headedTyphon, as related byHesiod in theTheogony,[257][268] and possibly in the myth ofHeracles slaying the nine-headedLernaean Hydra and in the legend ofApollo slaying the earth-dragonPython.[257][269] The story ofHeracles's theft of the cattle ofGeryon is probably also related.[257] Although he is not usually thought of as a storm deity in the conventional sense, Heracles bears many attributes held by other Indo-European storm deities, including physical strength and a penchant for violence and gluttony.[257][270]
The original motif is also reflected inGermanic mythology.[271] TheNorse god of thunderThor slays the giant serpentJörmungandr, which lived in the waters surrounding the realm ofMidgard.[272][273] In theVölsunga saga,Sigurd slays the dragonFafnir and, inBeowulf, the eponymous hero slaysa different dragon.[274] The depiction of dragons hoarding a treasure (symbolizing the wealth of the community) in Germanic legends may also be a reflex of the original myth of the serpent holding waters.[264]
InZoroastrianism and inPersian mythology,Fereydun (and laterGarshasp) slays the serpentZahhak. InAlbanian mythology, thedrangue, semi-human divine figures associated with thunders, slay thekulshedra, huge multi-headed fire-spitting serpents associated with water and storms. TheSlavic god of stormsPerun slays his enemy the dragon-godVeles, as does thebogatyr heroDobrynya Nikitich to the three-headed dragonZmey.[272] A similar execution is performed by theArmenian god of thundersVahagn to the dragonVishap,[275] by theRomanian knight heroFăt-Frumos to the fire-spitting monsterZmeu, and by theCeltic god of healingDian Cecht to the serpent Meichi.[260]
InShinto, where Indo-European influences throughVedic religion can be seen in mythology, the storm godSusanoo slays the eight-headed serpentYamata no Orochi.[276]
TheGenesis narrative ofJudaism andChristianity, as well as the dragon appearing inRevelation 12 can be interpreted[by whom?] as a retelling of the serpent-slaying myth. The Deep orAbyss from or on top of whichGod is said to make the world is translated from theBiblical HebrewTehom (Hebrew: תְּהוֹם). Tehom is acognate of theAkkadian wordtamtu andUgaritict-h-m which have similar meaning. As such it was equated with the earlier Babylonian serpentTiamat.[277]
FolkloristAndrew Lang suggests that the serpent-slaying myth morphed into a folktale motif of a frog or toad blocking the flow of waters.[278]
Another reconstructed myth is the story of the fire in the waters.[279][280] It depicts a fiery divine being named*H₂epom Nepōts ('Descendant of the Waters') who dwells in waters, and whose powers must be ritually gained or controlled by a hero who is the only one able to approach it.[281][282] In theRigveda, the godApám Nápát is envisioned as a form of fire residing in the waters.[283][284] InCeltic mythology, a well belonging to the godNechtain is said to blind all those who gaze into it.[280][285] In an old Armenian poem, a small reed in the middle of the sea spontaneously catches fire and the heroVahagn springs forth from it with fiery hair and a fiery beard and eyes that blaze as suns.[286] In a ninth-century Norwegian poem by the poet Thiodolf, the namesǣvar niþr, meaning "grandson of the sea", is used as akenning for fire.[287] Even the Greek tradition contains possible allusions to the myth of a fire-god dwelling deep beneath the sea.[286] The phrase"νέποδες καλῆς Ἁλοσύδνης", meaning "descendants of the beautiful seas", is used inThe Odyssey 4.404 as an epithet for the seals ofProteus.[286][why?]
The legend of the King and Virgin involves a ruler saved by the offspring of his virgin daughter after seeing his future threatened by rebellious sons or male relatives.[288][263] The virginity likely symbolizes in the myth the woman that has no loyalty to any man but her father, and the child is likewise faithful only to his royal grandfather.[289] The legends of the Indic kingYayāti, saved by his virgin daughter Mādhāvi; the Roman kingNumitor, rescued by his chaste daughterRhea Silvia; the Irish kingEochaid, father of the legendary queenMedb, and threatened by his sons thefindemna; as well as the myth of the Norse virgin goddessGefjun offering lands toOdin, are generally cited as possible reflexes of an inherited Proto-Indo-European motif.[289] The Irish queenMedb could becognate with the Indic Mādhāvi (whose name designates either a spring flower, rich in honey, or an intoxicating drink), both deriving from the root*medʰ- ("mead, intoxicating drink").[290]
A myth of the War of the Foundation has also been proposed, involving a conflict between the first two functions (the priests and warriors) and the third function (fertility), which eventually make peace in order to form a fully integrated society.[291] The NorseYnglingasaga tells of a war between theÆsir (led byOðinn andThor) and theVanir (led byFreyr,Freyja andNjörðr) that finally ends with the Vanir coming to live among the Æsir. Shortly after the mythical founding of Rome,Romulus fights his wealthy neighbours theSabines, the Romansabducting their women to eventually incorporate the Sabines into the founding tribes of Rome.[292] In Vedic mythology, theAśvins (representing the third function as theDivine Twins) are blocked from accessing the heavenly circle of power byIndra (the second function), who is eventually coerced into letting them in.[293][292] TheTrojan War has also been interpreted as a reflex of the myth, with the wealthyTroy as the third function and the conquering Greeks as the first two functions.[292]
Jaan Puhvel notes similarities between the Norse myth in which the godTýr inserts his hand into the wolfFenrir's mouth while the other gods bind him withGleipnir, only for Fenrir to bite off Týr's hand when he discovers he cannot break his bindings, and the Iranian myth in whichJamshid rescues his brother's corpse fromAhriman's bowels by reaching his hand up Ahriman's anus and pulling out his brother's corpse, only for his hand to become infected withleprosy.[294] In both accounts, an authority figure forces the evil entity into submission by inserting his hand into the being's orifice (in Fenrir's case the mouth, in Ahriman's the anus) and losing or impairing it.[294] Fenrir and Ahriman fulfill different roles in their own mythological traditions and are unlikely to be remnants of a Proto-Indo-European "evil god"; nonetheless, it is clear that the "binding myth" is of Proto-Indo-European origin.[295]
The motif of thedeath of a son, killed by his father who is unaware of the relationship, is so common among the attested traditions that some scholars have ascribed it to Proto-Indo-European times.[296] In theUlster Cycle,Connla, son of the Irish heroCú Chulainn, who was raised abroad in Scotland, unknowingly confronts his father and is killed in the combat; inRussian epic poems,Ilya Muromets must kill his own son, who was also raised apart; the Germanic hero Hildebrant inadvertently kills his son Hadubrant in theHildebrandslied; and the IranianRostam unknowingly confronts his sonSohrab in theeponymous epic of theShāhnāmeh.King Arthur is forced to kill his sonMordred in battle who was raised far away on the Orkney Islands; and inGreek mythology, an intrigue leads the heroTheseus to kill his sonHippolytus; when the lie is finally exposed, Hippolytus is already dead. According to Mallory and Adams, the legend "places limitations on the achievement of warrior prowess, isolates the hero from time by cutting off his generational extension, and also re-establishes the hero's typical adolescence by depriving him of a role (as father) in an adult world".[296]
Although the concept of elevation through intoxicating drink is a nearly universal motif, a Proto-Indo-European myth of the "cycle of themead", originally proposed byGeorges Dumézil and further developed by Jarich G. Oosten (1985), is based on the comparison of Indic and Norse mythologies.[297] In both traditions, gods and demons must cooperate to find a sacred drink providing immortal life. The magical beverage is prepared from the sea, and a serpent (Vāsuki orJörmungandr) is involved in the quest. The gods and demons eventually fight over the magical potion and the former, ultimately victorious, deprive their enemy of theelixir of life.[297][298]
Proto-Indo-European religion was centered on sacrificial rites of cattle and horses, probably administered by a class ofpriests orshamans[citation needed]. Animals were slaughtered (*gʷʰn̥tós) and dedicated to the gods (*deywṓs) in the hope of winning their favour.[299][failed verification –see discussion] TheKhvalynsk culture, associated with the archaic Proto-Indo-European language, had already shown archeological evidence for the sacrifice of domesticated animals.[43]
The king as the high priest would have been the central figure in establishing favourable relations with the other world.[299][failed verification –see discussion]Georges Dumézil suggested that the religious function was represented by a duality, one reflecting themagico-religious nature of priesthood, while the other is involved in religious sanction to human society (especially contracts), a theory supported by common features in Iranian, Roman, Scandinavian and Celtic traditions.[299]
The reconstructed cosmology of the Proto-Indo-Europeans shows that ritual sacrifice of cattle, the cow in particular, was at the root of their beliefs, as the primordial condition of the world order.[53][43] The myth of*Trito, the first warrior, involves the liberation of cattle stolen by a three-headed entity named*Ngʷʰi. After recovering the wealth of the people, Trito eventually offers the cattle to the priest in order to ensure the continuity of the cycle of giving between gods and humans.[302] The word for "oath",*h₁óitos, derives from the verb*h₁ey- ("to go"), after the practice of walking between slaughtered animals as part of taking an oath.[303]
Proto-Indo-Europeans likely had a sacred tradition ofhorse sacrifice for the renewal of kingship involving the ritual mating of a queen or king with a horse, which was then sacrificed and cut up for distribution to the other participants in the ritual.[304][263] In both the RomanEquus October and the IndicAśvamedhá, the horse sacrifice is performed on behalf of the warrior class or to a warrior deity, and the dismembered pieces of the animal eventually goes to different locations or deities. Another reflex may be found in a medieval Irish tradition involving a king-designate fromCounty Donegal copulating with amare before bathing with the parts of the sacrificed animal.[263][304] The Indic ritual likewise involved the symbolic marriage of the queen to the deadstallion.[305] Further, ifHittite laws prohibited copulation with animals, they made an exception of horses or mules.[304] In both the Celtic and Indic traditions, an intoxicating brewage played a part in the ritual, and thesuffix inaśva-medhá could be related to theOld Indic wordmad- ("boil, rejoice, get drunk").[290]Jaan Puhvel has also compared the Vedic name of the tradition with the Gaulish godEpomeduos, the "master of horses".[306][307]
Scholars have reconstructed a Proto-Indo-European cult of the weapons, especially thedagger, which holds a central position in various customs and myths.[308][309] In theOsseticNart saga, the sword ofBatradz is dragged into the sea after his death, and the BritishKing Arthur throws his legendary swordExcalibur back into the lake from which it initially came. The IndicArjuna is also instructed to throw his bowGandiva into the sea at the end of his career, and weapons were frequently thrown into lakes, rivers or bogs as a form of prestige offering inBronze andIron Age Europe.[308] Reflexes of an ancestral cult of the magical sword have been proposed in the legends of Excalibur andDurandal (the weapon ofRoland, said to have been forged by the mythicalWayland the Smith). Among North Iranians,Herodotus described theScythian practice of worshiping swords as manifestations of "Ares" in the 5th century BC, andAmmianus Marcellinus depicted theAlanic custom of thrusting swords into the earth and worshiping them as "Mars" in the 4th century AD.[309]
Ṛta, for example, is impersonal. ... Pande defines Rta as 'the ideal principle in ordering, the paradigmatic principle of ultimate reality'. Rta is the great criterion of the Rgveda, the standard of truth both for individual instances of human morality and for cosmic order and truth. The god Varuna is the guardian and preserver of the Rta, although Varuna also must abide its rules. Rta is more passive than the active god of christianity, but nevertheless it encompasses the order of the sacrifice, the physical order of the universe and the moral law.
Themis' children clearly show her to be a divine principle of natural and political order, a principle humans and gods alike need to obey.
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