TheProtectorate of the Western Regions (simplified Chinese:西域都护府;traditional Chinese:西域都護府;pinyin:Xīyù Dūhù Fǔ;Wade–Giles:Hsi1-yü4 Tu1-hu4 Fu3) was an imperial administration (aprotectorate) situated in theWestern Regions administered byHan dynasty China and its successors on and off from 59 or 60 BCE until the end of theSixteen Kingdoms period in 439 AD.[1] The "Western Regions" refers to areas west ofYumen Pass, especially theTarim Basin in southern Xinjiang. These areas would later be termedAltishahr (southernXinjiang, excludingDzungaria) by Turkic-speaking peoples.[2] The term "western regions" was also used by the Chinese more generally to refer toCentral Asia.
The protectorate was the first direct rule by a Chinese government of the area.[2][3] It consisted of variousvassal states and Han garrisons placed under the authority of a protector-general of the Western Regions, who was appointed by theHan court.
Prior to the establishment of the protectorate, there was a preceding post known as the "Colonel [for the Assistance of Imperial] Envoys" that was established a year after theWar of the Heavenly Horses ended in 101 BC. After the war, Han posts were erected betweenDunhuang and the Salt Marsh with several hundred farmer soldiers stationed atLúntái and Qúlí. The post was established to guard their farmland and to take care of grain storage for Han envoys traveling to other states.[4] Lúntái 輪臺 (Minimal Old Chinese*run-də̂,Later Hanluin-də), formerly transcribed Lúntóu 侖頭 (Minimal Old Chinese*run-dô,Later Han*luin-do), had been earlier destroyed by the Chinese general Lǐ Guǎnglì 李廣利 in 102 BCE.[5][6]
During theHan–Xiongnu War, the Chinese empire established a military garrison at this place.,[7] in presentLuntai County.[8] The Chinese sought to control the Western Regions to keep theXiongnu away fromInner China, and to control the valuableSilk Road trade that passed through the area. The local inhabitants of the Western Regions were diverse, and the area contained several groups who originated in WesternEurasia and/or spokeIndo-European languages. These groups includedTocharian-speaking city-states likeĀrśi (Arshi; later Agni/Karasahr),Kuča (Kucha),Gumo (later Aksu),Turfan (Turpan), andLoulan (Krorän/Korla). Additionally, residents of the oasis city-states ofKhotan andKashgar spokeSaka, one of theEastern Iranian languages.[9]
The position of protector-general was officially established in 59 or 60 BCE after theSouthern Xiongnu ruler Bi, the Rizhu King of the Right, submitted to the Han dynasty. Rizhu was bestowed the title of Marquis of Allegiance to Imperial Authority whileZheng Ji, the envoy who received him, was commissioned to act as protector-general of both the Northern and Southern routes. Another account states that the post of protector-general had already been established by 64 BC and Zheng Ji was sent out to meet Rizhu, who led over 10,000 Xiongnu to submit to Han authority. Under the protector-general was a deputy colonel of the Western Regions.[4]
The protector-general established a general headquarters at Wūlěi 烏壘 (Minimal Old Chinese*ʔâ-ruiʔ,Later Han*ʔɑ-luiᴮ): 吉於是中西域而立莫府，治烏壘城 "Zheng Ji then established his headquarters in the central western regions, governing the city of Wūlěi".[10] Wūlěi is situated is 350lǐ east ofKucha and 330lǐ north to Qúlí 渠犁 (Minimal Old Chinese*ga-rî/ri,Later Han*gɨɑ-lei/liᴮ), itself on the east of a river and 580lǐ east of Kucha.[11]
It was the highest Han dynasty military position in the west during its existence. During the peak of the protectorate's power in 51 BCE, theWusun nation was brought under Han submission.[3] The post was abandoned after the usurpation ofWang Mang (Xin dynasty) from 8 to 22 CE. By then, at least 18 different people had served as protector-general, though only 10 of them have known names. In 45 CE, the eighteen states of the Western Regions requested the re-establishment of the protectorate to restore peace to the region, butEmperor Guangwu of Han refused.[12]
During the second half of the first century CE, at the time of the Eastern Han dynasty, Chinese armies led byBan Chao,Dou Gu, andGuo Xun brought the Western Regions back under Han control. The protectorate was thus re-established.[13] In 74 CE,Emperor Ming of Han and his successor awarded the position of protector-general (now with administrative obligations as well) to generalChen Mu. Chen Mu was killed by the rebellious troops ofYanqi andQiuci.[12] In 83 CE, the office ofChief Official of the Western Regions was established and awarded to Ban Chao. The position of the chief official was beneath that of the protector-general. Ban Chao would later be made protector-general in 91 CE, after which he reconquered the Western Regions.[14] The seat of the protectorate was for a time shifted to Taqian (or Tagan; near modern Kucha).[4] Ban Chao was succeeded byRen Shang andDuan Xi.[12]
On 29 July 107, a series ofQiang uprisings in the areas ofHexi Corridor andGuanzhong. Duan Xi was killed and the post was abandoned. The protectorate was later restored from 123 to 124 by the son of Ban Chao,Ban Yong. The protectorate was again revived in 335 byFormer Liang and headquartered inGaochang until the demise ofNorthern Liang.[4]
In the southern Tarim Basin, coins from the period of the protectorate's existence have been found with inscriptions in both Chinese and theKharoshthi script, which was used for local Indo-European languages.[15]
In the 7th century, a successor administration, theProtectorate General to Pacify the West was established by theTang dynasty atXizhou (Turpan) and was later moved to Kucha.[12]
Historians and archaeologists have debated the location of the archaeological site corresponding to the seat of the Protectorate of the Western Regions.[16] According to the current state of archaeology, one of the candidates is theZorküt Ancient City, due to the size of the site.[17]
| City | Households | Population | Soldiers |
|---|---|---|---|
| Beilu | 277 | 1,387 | 422 |
| Further Beilu | 462 | 1,137 | 350 |
| Danhuan | 27 | 194 | 45 |
| Guhu | 55 | 264 | 45 |
| Gumo | 3,500 | 24,500 | 4,500 |
| Hanmi | 3,340 | 20,040 | 3,540 |
| Jie | 99 | 500 | 115 |
| Jingjue | 480 | 3,360 | 500 |
| Eastern Jumi | 191 | 1,948 | 572 |
| Western Jumi | 332 | 1,926 | 738 |
| Jushi | 700 | 6,050 | 1,865 |
| Further Jushi | 595 | 4,774 | 1,890 |
| Loulan | 1,570 | 14,100 | 2,912 |
| Moshan | 450 | 5,000 | 1,000 |
| Pishan | 500 | 3,500 | 500 |
| Pulei | 325 | 2,032 | 799 |
| Further Pulei | 100 | 1,070 | 334 |
| Qiangruo | 450, | 1,750 | 500 |
| Qiemo | 230 | 1,610 | 320 |
| Qiuci | 6,970 | 81,317 | 21,076 |
| Qule | 310 | 2,170 | 300 |
| Quli | 240 | 1,610 | 300 |
| Shule | 1,510 | 18,647 | 2,000 |
| Suoju | 2,339 | 16,373 | 3,049 |
| Weili | 1,200 | 9,600 | 2,000 |
| Weitou | 300 | 2,300 | 800 |
| Weixu | 700 | 4,900 | 2,000 |
| Wensu | 2,200 | 8,400 | 1,500 |
| Wulei (Central Command) | 110 | 1,200 | 300 |
| Wutanzili | 41 | 231 | 57 |
| Xiaoyuan | 150 | 1,050 | 200 |
| Xiye | 350 | 4,000 | 1,000 |
| Yanqi (colony) | 4,000 | 32,100 | 6,000 |
| Yulishi | 190 | 1,445 | 331 |
| Yutian | 3,300 | 19,300 | 2,400 |
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