Protectorate General to Pacify the South 安南都護府 (Ānnán Dūhùfǔ) | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 679–866 | |||||||||
 Map of the six major protectorates during the Tang dynasty. The Protectorate General to Pacify the South is marked as Annan (安南都护府). | |||||||||
| Status | Imperial protectorate of theTang dynasty andWu Zhou dynasty | ||||||||
| Capital | Songping[1] (La Thành, and laterĐại La) | ||||||||
| Common languages | |||||||||
| Religion | Mahayana Buddhism,Taoism,Animism | ||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||
| Emperor of the Tang dynasty | |||||||||
• 649–683 | Emperor Gaozong of Tang | ||||||||
• 859–873 | Emperor Yizong of Tang (Last) | ||||||||
| Duhu (Protectorate-governor) | |||||||||
• 684–687 | Liu Yanyou | ||||||||
• 862–863 (last) | Cai Xi | ||||||||
| Historical era | Early Middle Ages | ||||||||
• Established | 679 | ||||||||
• Lý Tự Tiên's rebellion | 687 | ||||||||
• Mai Thúc Loan's rebellion | 722 | ||||||||
• Nanzhao invasions | 864–866 | ||||||||
• ToJinghai circuit | 866 | ||||||||
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| Annan | |||||||||
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| Chinese name | |||||||||
| Traditional Chinese | 安南都護府 | ||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 安南都护府 | ||||||||
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| Vietnamese name | |||||||||
| Vietnamese alphabet | An Nam đô hộ phủ | ||||||||
| Chữ Hán | 安南都護府 | ||||||||
| History ofVietnam (bynames of Vietnam) |  | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Annan (Chinese:安南,Ānnán, "Pacified South") orAnnam (Vietnamese:An Nam) was animperial protectorate and the southernmost administrative division of theTang dynasty andWu Zhou dynasty of China from 679 to 866, located in modern-dayVietnam. An Nam, simplified to "Annam", is theVietnamese form of theChinese name Annan, which means "the Pacified South" or "to pacify the South", aclipped form of the full name, the "Protectorate General to Pacify the South" (Chinese:安南都護府; pinyin:Ānnán Dūhùfǔ; Vietnamese:An Nam đô hộ phủ).
In 679, the Annan Protectorate replaced theJiaozhou Protectorate (Chinese:交州; pinyin:Jiāozhōu) (Chinese:交趾; pinyin:Jiāozhǐ; Vietnamese:Giao Chỉ), also known asJiaozhi, with its seat situated inSongping County (宋平縣) (modernHanoi). Annan was renamed to Zhennan for a brief period from 757 to 760 before reverting to Annan.
After coming under attack byNanzhao in 864, the Annan Protectorate was renamedJinghai Military Command upon its reconquest byGao Pian in 866. Today the same area is sometimes known asTonkin (Chinese:東京; pinyin:Dōngjīng; Vietnamese:Đông Kinh), the "eastern capital" ofĐại Việt. Locally, the area is known asBắc Kỳ (北圻), the "northern area".
The territory was conquered by theQin dynasty generalZhao Tuo after the death ofQin Shi Huang. In the chaos surrounding theChu–Han Contention, he declared its independence asNanyue and ruled fromPanyu (modernGuangzhou). Jiaozhou was the Han dynastycountry subdivision formed from the annexation of this tributary kingdom in 111 BCE and it initially comprised the areas of modern Guangdong,Guangxi, andnorthern Vietnam.
During theThree Kingdoms era,Eastern Wu split fromLiangguang asGuangzhou in 222 CE.Tang rule in northern Vietnam began in 622 after Qiu He, the Chinese warlord recognized Tang authority.[2]
Prior to the Annan Protectorate, the region it encompassed was part ofJiaozhou, a province created during theHan dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD). In 679, the Annan Protectorate replaced the Jiaozhou Protectorate and was seated inSongping County (宋平縣) in present dayHanoi.[3]
The Annan Protectorate was briefly renamed to Zhennan Protectorate in 757 due to theAn Lushan rebellion.[4] The Annan Protectorate came under attack fromNanzhao in 846 and the conflict lasted until 866, after which it was renamedJinghai Army byGao Pian, the general who defeated the Nanzhao forces.[5]
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In 676, jiedushi and governors of Guangxi, Guangdong and Jiaozhou established a method of selecting local men for administrative positions. Every four years, the "southern selection" would choose aboriginal chiefs to be appointed to fill positions of the fifth degree and above.[7] Taxation was more moderate than within the empire proper; the harvest tax was one-half the standard rate, an acknowledgement of the political problems inherent in ruling a non-Chinese population.[7]
In 687, the new governor of Annan, Liu Yanyou tried to levy full taxes on the Li people, who had been given special tax exemptions requiring them to pay only half the normal tax rate. The indigenous peasants under chiefLý Tự Tiên resisted. Liu Yanyou killed Lý. Đinh Kiến, one of Lý's compatriots, led the people against Yanyou and besieged him in Songping. In the summer, the rebels took Songping and put Yanyou to death. A governor general, Feng Yuanchang, had earlier been called in to help Liu, but Feng hoped to gain influence at Liu's expense and did nothing to help him. Instead Feng established a fortified camp and sent envoys to the rebels telling them to kill their leader and join him. After Liu was killed, Feng abandoned Annan. Another general, Cao Xuanjing, marched into Annan, put down the rebellion, and executed Đinh Kiến.[8][9]
In 722,Mai Thúc Loan rebelled in what is nowHà Tĩnh Province and proclaimed himself the "Swarthy Emperor" or "Black Emperor" (Hắc Đẽ).[10][11] His rebellion rallied people from 23 counties with "400,000 followers". Many were peasants who roamed the countryside, plundering food and other items.[12] He also allied withChampa andChenla, an unknown kingdom named Jinlin (“Gold Neighbor”) and other unnamed kingdoms.[13][14] A Chinese army of 100,000 fromGuangdong under general Yang Zixu, including a "multitude" of mountain tribesmen who had remained loyal to the Tang,[13] marched directly along the coast, following the old road built byMa Yuan. Yang Zixu attacked Mai Thúc Loan by surprise and suppressed the rebellion in 723.[15] The corpses of the Swarthy Emperor and his followers were piled up to form a huge mound and were left on public display to check further revolts.[16][12]
In 761, a Japanese named Abe-no Nakamaro was given charge of the protectorate; his Chinese name was Zhao Heng. He had come to China from Japan in 717 at the age of nineteen to study and subsequently spent his life as an official of the empire. In 753 he had attempted to return to Japan, but his ship was struck by a storm and blown far to the south, where it eventually landed in Hoan. He immediately returned to the Tang capital, but gave up hope of returning to his homeland. A few years later he was sent back south as protector general.[17]
— Keith Weller Taylor
In 767, a Javanese raiding fleet invaded Annan, besieging Songping, but were defeated by Tang marquis Zhang Boyi.[15] In 785, chieftains of the Annamese,Đỗ Anh Hàn,Phùng Hưng andPhùng An rebelled, due to Chinese governor Gao Zhengping's doubling of taxes. Tang forces retook Annan in 791.[18][19]
In 803, a northern state ofChampa,Huanwang, seized southern Annan.[20] Tang troops working on garrison fortifications also revolted.[10] From 803 to 863, local rebels killed or expelled no fewer than six protector-generals of Annan.[10] In 820, Dương Thanh (Yang Qing) rebelled, seized Songping, and killed the protectorate general. Dương Thanh was unpopular due to his cruelty and put to death by the locals soon after,[21] however the region continued to experience disorders for the next 16 years.[20]
From 823 to 826, theNung people (Huang people), aided by raiders from Champa, attackedYongzhou and seized 18 counties. These raiders, known as the barbarians of the "Nung Grottoes" (Yellow Grotto Barbarians), sought aid fromNanzhao after the Tang retaliated from 827-835.[22][23] In 845, governor Wu Hun tried to get his troops to rebuild the city walls of Songping but they rebelled and forced him to flee. The rebellion was put down.[22] In 846 "barbarians" from Yunnan (Nanzhao) raided Annan. The new governor Pei Yuanyu counterattacked with soldiers from neighboring provinces.[24]
In 854, the new Jiedushi of Annan, Li Zhuo, provoked hostility with the mountain tribes by prohibiting the salt trade and killing powerful chieftains, resulting in the defection of prominent local leaders toNanzhao.[25][26][27] The chieftainLý Do Độc, as well as others, submitted to Nanzhao. In 858, Nanzhao invaded Annan[28] while the new jiedushi, Li Hu, killed the son of a chieftain who was implicated in a mutiny, further alienating powerful clans in Annan and causing them to defect to Nanzhao. While Nanzhao invaded in earnest, the Đỗ clan rebelled with 30,000 men.[29] Then in early 863, Nanzhao and tribal allies took Songping after a bittersiege. There was general chaos as Nanzhao ravaged Annan, alienating the locals, and the balance of power see-sawed between Tang and Nanzhao forces.[30][31] In 864, the experienced Tang general,Gao Pian, led a counterattack that saw the defeat of Nanzhao forces in 866. He recapturedSongping, the capital of Annan, and named the rebuilt capitalĐại La.[32] He also renamed the region of Annan toJinghai Jun (lit. Peaceful Sea Army).[33][30][34][35]
Gao Pian departed from Annan in 868 and left his grandson, Kao Xun, in charge of Annan. In the 870s, Kao Xun was replaced by Zeng Gun, who was Gao Pian's most trusted assistant during the Nanzhao war.[36] The Tang conducted a campaign against local tribes in Annan in 874-879.[37] In 877, troops deployed from Annan inGuangxi mutinied.[37] In 880, the army in Annan mutinied, taking the city ofĐại La, and forced the military commissioner Zeng Gun to flee north, ending de facto Chinese control inNorthern Vietnam.[37]
During the era of the Annan Protectorate, the indigenous people living within its jurisdiction had no particular name. They were referred to in Chinese writing as theWild Man (Wild Barbarians), theLi or the Annamese.[38][39] Sinceantiquity the peoples of Northern Vietnam had been noted for their common tattooing and cropped hair, wearing line ponchos, wielded wooden spears, and shot boneheaded arrows. They also sacrificed men to their agricultural gods.[38] In the north, around Yongzhou (Nanning), near modern-dayGuangxi, mountains were the territories of the Huang (Ghwang) people or the "Grotto Barbarians", theNùng people and the Ning clans.[40][41]
Revival of direct Tang control over Annan for two centuries resulted in a hybrid Tang-indigenous culture, political and legal structures.[42] Not only the localsinicized elites used Chinese script, but both the Sino-Vietnamese elite and the ordinary common folks used Chinese style surnames and personal names. However many of the recorded personal names do not make any sense in Chinese, which indicates they may have been taken from another language, such as Vietnamese.[43] A large number of Chinese officers and soldiers were sent to Annan, some of whom married local women and settled down.[42]Buddhism thrived in Annan throughout the Tang era. Some of Chinese monks came and taught Chinese Buddhism in Annan.Wu Yantong (d. 820), a prominent Chinese monk in Annan, brought a new sect ofChan Buddhism that survived for about five centuries.[42] Local women had large roles and status in religious life and society.[44] Vietnamese temples and monasteries differed with Chinese and other East Asian countries in their role as theđình, the village spiritual center, where village elders met.[42] The famous Tang Chinese monkYijing mentioned six Vietnamese monks who went on pilgrimage to India andCeylon in search of theDharma.[45] AlthoughDaoism became the dynasty's official religion, four prominent Tang poets praised Buddhist masters who hailed from Annan.[46] IndigenousConfucianist scholarly elites remained relatively small.[47] In 845, a Tang official reported to the throne that "Annan has produced no more than eight imperial officials; senior graduates have not exceeded ten."Liêu Hữu Phương was the only recorded student from Annan to have passed theclassical exams in 816 in the Tang capital ofChang'an. He succeeded on his second attempt and became a librarian at the imperial court.[47]
Formerly the Buddha was born in Tianzhu [India],
Now he manifests himself here to convert the people of Rinan.
Free from all defilements,
He built a temple at the foot of the mountain.
By the stream the fragrant branches are the standards,
The boulders on the mountaintop become his home.
Blue doves practice meditation,
White monkeys listen to the sutras.
Creepers cover the cloud-high cliffs,
Flowers rise above the pond at the foot of the mountain.
The water in the streams is good for performing ritual,
The trees let him hang his clothes on them.
This disciple regrets that he is ignorant,
Not able to discuss the Buddha's doctrine.
Who one night crossed over the Tiger-stream,
Amidst mountain fog under a lonely tree.[48]
— Shen Quanqi reflecting on the establishment ofBuddhism inRinan
Protectorate governors (都護) are civilian governors of the Protectorate. Military administration is held byJiedushi (Military commissioner). During rebellion and wartime, the two position can be held by the same person.
| Period | Year | Households | Population | Sources |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kāiyuán | 740-742 | 75,839 | 299,377 | [49] |
