In antiquity, the area of Pristina was part of theDardanian Kingdom. The heritage of the classical era is represented by the settlement ofUlpiana. After theRoman Empire was divided into a western and an eastern half, the area remained within theByzantine Empire between the 5th and 9th centuries. In the middle of the 9th century, it was ceded to theFirst Bulgarian Empire, before falling again under Byzantine occupation in the early 11th century and then in the late 11th century to theSecond Bulgarian Empire. The growingKingdom of Serbia annexed the area in the 13th century and it remained under theSerbian Empire in the 14th century up to the start of the Ottoman era (1389–1455). The next centuries would be characterized byOttoman rule. During this period, Pristina developed from a village to a major urban center of the region. Following the end of theFirst Balkan War in 1914, it became a part of the newly formedKingdom of Serbia. In 1948, it was chosen as the capital of the provinceSAP Kosovo under the statehood ofYugoslavia. Furthermore, Pristina would continue to serve as the capital of Kosovo after its2008 independence from Serbia.
Pristina seems to have been a small village before the late 15th century. It is first recorded in 1342 as a village during the reign ofStefan Dušan; about a century later (and the beginning of theOttoman era), in 1455, it had a small population of 300 households. In the following century, Pristina became an important mining and trading center due to its strategic position near the rich mining town ofNovo Brdo. The city was known for its trade fairs and items, such asgoatskin and goat hair as well as gunpowder.[8]
The origin of the name of the city is unknown.Eric P. Hamp connected the word with an Indo-European derivative*pṛ-tu- (ford) +*stein (cognate to Englishstone) which inProto-Albanian, spoken in the region before the reign of Roman Emperor Trajan (1st–2nd century CE) producedPristina.[9] Thus the name in the pre-Slavic migrations era would mean in the local Albanian variety "ford-stone" (compareStanford).[10]
Prišt inSerbian means"boil" and this may be a reference to the seething waters of the nearby riverGračanka.[11]Marko Snoj proposes the derivation from aSlavic form *Prišьčь, a possessive adjective from the personal name *Prišьkъ,[c] and the derivational suffix-ina 'belonging to X and his kin'. The name is most likely apatronymic of the personal name *Prišь.[d][12] According toAleksandar Loma, Snoj's etymology would presuppose a rare and relatively late word formation process.[13] According to Loma, the name of the city could be derived from theProto-Slavic dialectal word *pryščina, meaning "spring (of water)".[e][13]
The inhabitants of this city, which most of them are Albanians, call themselvesPrishtinali in the localGheg Albanian.[14]
Ulpiana was an important political, cultural, and economic center of the Roman province of Dardania.
By the early Iron Age, the distinctlyDardanian local variant of theIllyrianGlasinac-Mati culture appears in Kosovo with a particular spread in hilltop settlements. In the area of Pristina, a hilltop settlement appears since the 8th century BCE at an elevation of 685 metres near the village Teneshdoll, around 16 kilometres north of the Pristina city center. Pottery finds suggests that the area may have been in use since the Bronze Age. The settlement seems to have maintained long-distance trade contacts as the finding of askyphos vessel from Aegean Greece suggests.[16]During the 4th century BC, theKingdom of Dardania was established in the region.[17][18][19]
In the early 11th century, Pristina fell underByzantine Empire rule and the area was included into atheme (province) calledBulgaria. Between the late 11th and middle of the 12th century it was ceded several times to theSecond Bulgarian Empire, before being annexed by theKingdom (later Empire) of Serbia, which held it under its rule throughout the 13th and 14th centuries.[20]
In 1315, the nearbyGračanica monastery was founded by Serbian KingStefan Milutin. KingStefan Dušan used a location in the area of Pristina as his court before moving eventually to the vicinity of Skopje as he moved his rule southwards.[21][22] The first historical record mentioning Pristina by its name dates back to 1315–1318, in achrysobull of Banjska near Mitrovica.[23] A first brief description of it as a town was given a few years later by the Byzantine EmperorJohn VI Kantakouzenos, on his visit to Stefan Dušan at his royal court, describing Pristina as a 'unfortified village'.[8][24][21] During the time of theKingdom of Serbia in the early 14th century, the main route between the Western Balkans andConstantinople ran through Pristina.[25] Following theBattle of Kosovo, Pristina fell within the realms of theSerbian Despotate under PrinceStefan Lazarević. A bitter feud between Lazarević andĐurađ Branković developed and led to open conflict, with Pristina being the scene of heavy fighting in 1409 and 1410.[26] At the turn of the 15th century, during the time of the Serbian Despotate, Pristina was a major trading post forsilver, with many traders hailing from theRepublic of Ragusa.[27]
Between the end of the 14th and the middle of the 15th century, Ottoman rule was gradually imposed in the town. In 1477 Pristina had a small Muslim population.[28][29] The settlement at the time had about 300 households. About 3/4 were Christian and 1/4 Muslim.[30] In the 15th century the toponymArnaut was recorded in the town, which indicates an Albanian presence.[31] In 1477 and 1525, Prishtina also had a Christian Albanian population.[32] The 1487 defter recorded 412 Christian and 94 Muslim households in Pristina, which at the time was administratively part of theSanjak of Viçitrina.[28] By the late 16th century, 60% of the population in Pristina had converted to Islam. The Muslim households contained Muslim and Islamised Albanian names and the Christian ones Christian, Slavic and Albanian.[33]
During theAustro-Turkish War in the late 17th century, citizens of Pristina under the leadership of the Catholic Albanian priestPjetër Bogdani pledged loyalty to the Austrian army and supplied troops. He contributed a force of 6,000 Albanian soldiers to the Austrian army which had arrived in Pristina. According toNoel Malcolm, the city in the 17th century was inhabited by a majority population of 15,000 Muslims, probably Albanian but very possibly including some Slavs.[34] Sources from the 17th century mention the town as "situated in Albania".[35] Austrian military archives from the years of 1689-90 mention "5,000 MuslimAlbanians in Prishtina who had risen against the Turks".[34][36] Gjergj Bogdani, a nephew ofPjeter Bogdani, wrote later: 'My uncle, being found already dead and buried, was dug up from his grave and put out as food for the dogs in the middle of Prishtina'.[37]
During the 18th century, the history of the city is less documented, though recent data show a regular life unfolding in the city after theGreat Turkish War.[38] While in the first few decades the city was rebuilding its infrastructure, in the second part of the century it is better known for the governing of the local feudal family, the Gjinollis.[39]
After theLeague of Prizren (1878), the Ottoman authorities moved the capital of the vilayet of Kosovo to Prishtina, likely to weaken the influence of the League of Prizren and to strengthen their control by placing the capital in a more central position of the vilayet. Prishtina remained the capital from 1879 to 1888. During this time, Prishtina saw major economic and cultural growth, recovering from decades of decline. The first registered state printing press was moved to the city, and key buildings like today’sKosovo Museum (completed in 1885) were built.[40]
In May 1901, Albanians pillaged and partially burned Pristina.[41]
However, TheKingdom of Serbia opposed the plan for aGreater Albania, preferring a partition of the European territory of theOttoman Empire among the fourBalkan allies.[42] On 22 October 1912, Serb forces took Pristina. However, Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its share of the first Balkan War, occupied Kosovo in 1915 and took Pristina under Bulgarian occupation.[43]
During theMassacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars, Pristina suffered many atrocities; the Serbian army entered Pristina on 22 October.[44] Albanian and Turkish households were looted and destroyed, and women and children were killed.[45] A Danish journalist based in Skopje reported that the Serbian campaign in Pristina "had taken on the character of a horrific massacring of the Albanian population".[44][45] An estimated 5,000 people in Pristina were murdered in the early days of the Serbian occupation.[46][45][47] The events have been interpreted as an earlyattempt to change the region's demographics.[44] Serbian settlers were brought into the city, andSerbian Prime MinisterNikola Pašić bought 491 hectares (1,214 acres) of land.[48] Pristinans who wore aplis were targeted by the Serbian army; those who wore the Turkishfez were safe, and the price of a fez rose steeply.[49]
Aerial view of Pristina in 1924
In late October 1918, the 11th French colonial division took over Pristina and returned Pristina back to what then became the 'FirstYugoslavia' on 1 December 1918.[43] In September 1920, the decree of the colonization of the new southern lands' facilitated the takeover by Serb colonists of large Ottoman estates in Pristina and land seized from Albanians.[43] From 1929 to 1941, Pristina was part of theVardar Banovina of theKingdom of Yugoslavia.
On 17 April 1941, Yugoslavia surrendered unconditionally to axis forces. On 29 June,Benito Mussolini proclaimed a greater Albania, with most of Kosovo under Italian occupation united with Albania. There ensued mass killings of Serbs, in particular colonists, and an exodus of tens of thousands of Serbs.[50][51] After the capitulation of Italy,Nazi Germany took control of the city. In May 1944, 281 local Jews were arrested by units of the21stWaffen Mountain Division of the SSSkanderbeg (1st Albanian). The Jews were later deported to Germany, where many were killed.[52][53]
This ended a long period when the institution had been run as an outpost ofBelgrade University and gave a major boost to Albanian-language education and culture in Kosovo. The Albanians were also allowed to use the Albanian flag.[citation needed]
Following the reduction of Kosovo's autonomy by formerSerbian PresidentSlobodan Milošević in 1989, a harshly repressive regime was imposed throughout Kosovo by the Yugoslav government with Albanians largely being purged from state industries and institutions.[8] The LDK's[clarification needed] role meant, that when theKosovo Liberation Army began to attack Serbian and Yugoslav forces from 1996 onwards, Pristina remained largely calm until the outbreak of theKosovo War in March 1999. Pristina was spared large scale destruction compared to towns likeGjakova orPeja that suffered heavily at the hands of Serbian forces. For their strategic importance, however, a number of military targets were hit in Pristina during NATO's aerial campaign, including the post office, police headquarters and army barracks, today'sAdem Jashari garrison on the road toKosovo Polje.[citation needed]
Widespread violence broke out in Pristina. Serbian and Yugoslav forces shelled several districts and, in conjunction with paramilitaries, conducted large-scale expulsions of ethnic Albanians accompanied by widespread looting and destruction of Albanian properties. Many of those expelled were directed onto trains apparently brought to Pristina's main station for the express purpose of deporting them to the border of theRepublic of Macedonia, where they were forced into exile.[54]
The majority Albanian population fled Pristina in large numbers to escape Serb policy and paramilitary units. The first NATO troops to enter the city in early June 1999 were Norwegian special forces from FSKForsvarets Spesialkommando and soldiers from the BritishSpecial Air Service 22 S.A.S,[55][56] although to NATO's diplomatic embarrassment Russian troops arrived first at the airport. Apartments were occupied illegally and the Roma quarters behind the city park was torched. Several strategic targets in Pristina were attacked byNATO during the war, but serious physical damage appears to have largely been restricted to a few specific neighborhoods shelled by Yugoslav security forces. At the end of the war the Serbs became victims of violence committed by Kosovo Albanian extremists. On numerous occasions Serbs were killed by mobs of Kosovo Albanian extremists for merely speaking Serbian in public or being identified as a Serb.[57] Violence reached its pinnacle in2004 when Kosovo Albanian extremists were moving from apartment block to apartment block attacking andransacking the residences of remaining Serbs.[58] A majority of the city's 45,000 Serb inhabitants fled from Kosovo and today only several dozen remain in the city.[59]
Pristina International Airport's new terminal opened for operations in October 2013, which was built in response to a growing demand for air travel in Kosovo.[60] In November of the same year, theR7 motorway as part of the Albania-Kosovo motorway, linking Pristina and the Albanian city ofDurrës on theAlbanian Adriatic Sea Coast, was completed.[61] Another extensive development for the city has been the completion of theR6 motorway in 2019, connecting Pristina to North Macedonia's capital,Skopje.[62]
Prishtina’s post-1999 urban growth has also been the subject ofacademic study, including research that examines how university campuses interact with broadercity planning andurban transformation within the frameworks of sustainable and resilient development.[63]
Pristina is situated on an alluvial plain in the regions ofLlap andKosovo across theGollak Hills in central and eastern Kosovo.[64] Bodies of water in Pristina municipality includeBadovc and Batllava lakes as well as theLlapi, Prishtevka, and Vellusha rivers.[64] The park ofGermia lies in the east of Pristina and extends in the north of the villages of Llukar and Kolovica to the south atBadovc.
Pristina is one of the urban areas with the most severe water shortages in Kosovo.[65] Its population have to cope with daily water curbs due to the lack of rain and snowfall, which has left Pristina's water supplies in a dreadful condition.[65] The water supply comes from the two main reservoirs ofBatllava Lake andLake Badovc.[65] However, there are many problems with the water supply that comes from these two reservoirs which supply 92% of Pristina's population.[66] As such, the authorities have increased their efforts to remedy the situation and to make sure that such crises do not hit the city again.[67]
Climate
According to theKöppen climate classification, Pristina falls under the periphery of theoceanic climate (Cfb) zone with an average annual temperature of 10.6 °C (51.1 °F).[68] The warmest month in Pristina is August with an average temperature rising to 21.8 °C (71.2 °F), while the coldest month is January with an average temperature falling to −0.6 °C (30.9 °F).[68] Pristina has a moderate climate with an average of 2909.69 hours of sunshine annually.[68] July is the sunniest month of the year with an average of about 11.5 hours of sunshine a day and by contrast, the average hours of sunshine are less than 4.5 hours per day in January.[68]
As per the 2024 census conducted by theKosovo Agency of Statistics (KAS), Pristina is home to 227,466 residents, making it the most populous city and municipality in Kosovo. With a population density of 434 people per square kilometer, Pristina is the third most densely populated municipality of Kosovo.[72] The population of Pristina grew by 14.2% between 2011 and 2024, which shows the rapid rate ofurbanization in both the city and Kosovo as a whole.[73]
Ethnicity
In terms of ethnicity,Albanians comprise 98% of Pristina's residents. The remaining 2% is made up of various minority groups, ranked as follows: 0.94%Turks, 0.34%Serbs, 0.22%Romani, 0.19%Ashkali, and 0.16%Bosniaks.[72]
The Albanians of Pristina areGhegs, an ethnic subgroup of Albanians, and they speakGheg Albanian, a distinct dialect of theAlbanian language.
Pristina is amunicipality governed by amayor–council system with the mayor of Pristina and the members of the Pristina municipal council responsible for the administration of Pristina municipality. The municipality is encompassed inPristina district and consists of 43 adjacent settlements with Pristina as its seat.[78][79][80] The mayor of Pristina is elected by the people to act as the chief executive officer of Pristina municipality.[81] The Pristina municipal council is the legislative arm of the municipality and is also a democratically elected institution, comprising 51 councilors since the latest municipal election.[82]
Pristina is home to the largest companies of Kosovo.
Pristina constitutes the heart of theeconomy of Kosovo and of vital importance to the country's stability. Thetertiary sector is the most important for theeconomy of the city and employs more than 75% of workforce of Pristina.[83] 20% of the working population makes up thesecondary sector followed by theprimary sector with only 5%.[83]
The city has a large number of luxury hotels, modern restaurants, bars, pubs and very large nightclubs. Coffee bars are a representative icon of Pristina and they can be found almost everywhere. The largest hotels of the city are theSwiss Diamond and theGrand Hotel Prishtina situated in the heart of the city. Other major hotels present in Pristina include the Emerald Hotel, Sirius Hotel and Hotel Garden.
Some of the most visited sights near the city includeBatllava Lake andMarble Cave, which are also among the most visited places in country.[86] Pristina has played a very important role during the World War II, being a shelter for Jews, whose cemeteries now can be visited.[87][88][89] There is also abear sanctuary located around 22 km (14 mi) away from Pristina in the direction ofGjilan that is a tourist destination for local and foreign tourists.[90]
Pristina is the center ofeducation in the country and home to many public and private primary and secondary schools, colleges, academies and universities, located in different areas across the city. TheUniversity of Pristina is the largest and oldest university of the city and was established in the 20th century.
Finance, arts, journalism, medicine, dentistry, pharmaceuticals, veterinary programs, and engineering are among the most popular fields for foreigners to undertake in the city. This brings a many of young students from other cities and countries to Pristina. It is known for its many educational institutions such as University of Pristina,University of Pristina Faculty of Arts and theAcademy of Sciences and Arts of Kosovo, andAAB College.
Among the first schools known in the city were those opened during the Ottoman period.[91] Albanians were allowed to attend these schools, most of which were religious, with only few of them being secular.[91]
The city has numerouslibraries, many of which contain vast collections of historic and cultural documents. The most important library in terms of historic document collections is theNational Library of Kosovo.
TheGoddess on the Throne is one of the most precious archaeological artifacts of the country and has been adopted as the symbol of Pristina.
TheClock Tower served as a means of informing the town in order to let people know when to pray as well as the traders closing their shops.(left) TheEthnological Museum.(right)
Of 426 protected historical monuments inKosovo, 21 are in Pristina.[97] A large number of these monuments date back to theByzantine andOttoman periods.[98]
Starting in 1945, theYugoslav authorities began constructing a modern Pristina with the idea of "destroy the old, build the new".[99] This modernization led to major changes in the structure of the buildings, their function and their surrounding environment.[100]
However, numerous types of monuments have been preserved, including four mosques, a restored orthodox church, anOttoman bath, a public fountain, aclock tower, several traditional houses as well as European-influenced architecture buildings such as the Kosovo Museum.[101] These symbolize the historical and cultural character of Pristina as it was developed throughout centuries in the spirit of conquering empires (Roman,Byzantine,Ottoman andAustro-Hungarian).[98]
TheHivzi Sylejmani Library was founded in 1945 and it is one of the largest libraries regarding the number of books in its inventory which is nearly 100.000. All of those books are in service for the library's registered readers.[102][failed verification]
TheMbretëresha e Dardanisë(Queen of Dardania) orHyjnesha ne Fron(The Goddess on the Throne) is an artifact that was found during some excavations in 1955[103] in the area ofUlpiana,[104] a suburb of Pristina. It dates back to3500 BC in theNeolithic Era and it is made of clay.[105] In Pristina there is also "Hamami i Qytetit" (The City Bath) and the house of Emin Gjika which has been transformed to the Ethnographic Museum. Pristina also has its municipal archive which was established in the 1950s and holds all the records of the city, municipality and theregion.[102]
Media in Pristina include some of the most important newspapers, largest publishing houses and most prolific television studios of Kosovo. Pristina is the largest communications center of media inKosovo. Almost all of the major media organizations in Kosovo are based in Pristina.[106] The television industry developed in Pristina and is a significant employer in the city's economy. The four major broadcast networks,RTK,RTV21,KTV and KLAN KOSOVA are all headquartered in Pristina.Radio Television of Kosovo (RTK) is the only public broadcaster both in Pristina and in all of Kosovo as well, that continues to be financed directly by the state. All of the daily newspapers in Pristina have a readership throughout Kosovo.[107] An important event which affected the development of the media, is that inUniversity of Pristina since 2005 is established the Journalism Faculty within the Faculty of Philology in which are registered a large number of youth people.[108]
Albanian music is considered to be very rich in genres and their development. But before talking about genre development, a key point that has to be mentioned is without doubt the richfolklore of Kosovo most of which unfortunately has not been digitalized and saved in archives. The importance of folklore is reflected in two main keys, it is considered a treasure" of cultural heritage of our country and it helps to enlighten theAlbanian history of that time, and the importance of that is of a high level especially when mentioning the circumstances of our territory in that time.[109][110] Folklore has also served as inspiration and influence in many fields including music composition in the next generations[111] One of the most notable and very first composers,Rexho Mulliqi in whose work, folklore inspiration and influence is very present.[112]
When highlighting the music creativity and its starts in Kosovo and the relation between it and the music creativity in Albania even though they have had their development in different circumstances, it is proved that they share some characteristics in a very natural way. This fact shows that they belong to one "Cultural Tree".
Some of few international music artists of Albanian heritage that were born or their families were from Pristina areRita Ora,Dua Lipa andEra Istrefi.
The city of Pristina hosts only three active theatres such as theNational Theater, Oda and Dodona Theatre placed in center of Pristina. They offers live performances every week. The National Theatre is placed in the middle downtown of the city, near the main government building and was founded in 1946.[113] ODA Theatre is situated in the Youth Center Building and Dodona Theatre is found in Vellusha district, which is near Ibrahim Rugova Square. TheNational Theater of Kosovo is the highest-ranked theater institution in the country and has the largest number of productions. The theater is the only public theater inKosovo and therefore it is financed by Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sport. This theater has produced more than 400 premieres which have been watched by more than 3 million spectators.[114]
One of major festivals include the Chopin Piano Fest Pristina that was established for the first time on the occasion of the 200th birth anniversary ofFrédéric Chopin in 2010 by the Kosovo Chopin Association.[117] The festival is becoming a traditional piano festival held in spring every year. It is considered to be a national treasure.[118] In its 5 years of formation it has offered interpretations by both world-famous pianists such asPeter Donohoe,Janina Fialkowska, Kosovo-Albanian musicians of international renown likeArdita Statovci, Alberta Troni and local talents.[119][118] The Festival strives to promote the art of interpretation, the proper value of music and the technicalities that accompany it.[118] The Festival has served as inspiration for the formation of other music festivals like Remusica and Kamerfest.[119]
TheDAM Festival Pristina is one of the most prominent cultural events taking place in the capital. It is an annual music festival which gathers young and talented national and international musicians from all over the world. This festival works on enriching the Kosovar cultural scene with the collision of the traditional and the contemporary. The festival was founded by musicianDardan Selimaj.[120]
Pristina is the center of sport inKosovo, where activity is organized across amateur and professional levels, sport organizations and clubs, regulated by theKosovo Olympic Committee and the Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sport.[121] Sport is organized in units called Municipal Leagues. There are seven Municipal Leagues in Pristina. The Football Municipal consists of 18 clubs, the Basketball Municipal 5 clubs, the Handball Municipal 2 clubs, Table Tennis and Chess 6 clubs each, the Karate Municipal 15 and the Tennis Municipal 2 clubs.[122] Football is the most popular sport in the city. It is represented byFC Prishtina, which plays their home games in theFadil Vokrri Stadium.Basketball has been also one of the most popular sports in Pristina and is represented byKB Prishtina. It is the most successful basketball club in Kosovo and is part of the Balkan League.[123] Joining it in the Superleague is another team from Pristina, RTV 21.[124]
Streetball is a traditionally organized sport and cultural event at theGermia Park since 2000. Apart from indoor basketball success, Che Bar team has been crowned the champion of the national championship in 2013. This victory coincided with Streetball Kosovo's acceptance inFIBA.[125]Handball is also very popular. Pristina's representatives are recognized internationally and play international matches.[citation needed]
Pristina is the most important and frequent road junction of Kosovo as all of the majorexpressways andmotorways passes through the city limits. Most of themotorways of Kosovo are largely completed and partially under construction or under planning process. Prishtina is already connected to Albania through theIbrahim Rugova Motorway, which has significantly shorten the time between Prishtina and the Albanian capital ofTirana as well as the port city ofDurrës. Pristina has also direct access toSkopje through theR6 motorway.[127]
Public transport
Buses
TheTrafiku Urban city's buses serve to maintain a high level of connectivity between Pristina many different districts and beyond. It operates with 15 lines in the urban area. Lines are operated through a public-private partnership, with more than 80 buses on the fleet combined. In the beginning of the year 2025, the Municipality of Pristina announced a new unified bus ticket to use on all buses, including private buses, which would help with difficulties paying the bus ticket while travelling via bus.[128]
Analysis from the Traffic Police have shown that, of 240,000 cars registered in Kosovo, around 100,000 (41%) are from the region of Pristina.[citation needed] ThePristina railway station is located near the city center.
During the administration ofPërparim Rama, the municipality of Pristina introduced a new bike-sharing system named Prishtina Bikes, in partnership withNextbike. There are around 100 bikes and 10 stations scattered around the city.[131]
^SNOJ, Marko. 2007. Origjina e emrit të vendit Prishtinë. In: BOKSHI, Besim (ed.).Studime filologjike shqiptare: konferencë shkencore, 21–22 nëntor 2007. Prishtinë: Akademia e Shkencave dhe e Arteve e Kosovës, 2008, pp. 277–281.
^abLoma, Aleksandar (2013), "Топонимија Бањске хрисовуље" [Toponymy of the Banjska Chrysobull],Onomatološki Prilozi (in Serbian), Belgrade: Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts: 181,ISSN0351-9171
^Madgearu, Alexandru (2008).The wars of the Balkan Peninsula : their medieval origins. Martin Gordon, Alexandru Madgearu ([Rev. ed.] ed.). Scarecrow Press.ISBN978-0-8108-5846-6.OCLC144570965.
^abMalcolm, Noel (2020).Rebels, Believers, Survivors: Studies in the History of the Albanians. Oxford University Press. pp. 133–135.ISBN9780198857297...Prishtina, which had a mostly Muslim population of 3,000 households (roughly 15,000 people); many of these had apparently fled, but one early account states that 'in Prishtina 5,000 Arnauts, having thrown off the Turks, and many leaders of the surrounding places...swore fealty to the Emperor.' Who were these 'Arnauts'? Although this word is normally treated simply as a synonym for 'Albanians', there are (as we shall see) some doubts as to how such apparently 'ethnic' labels were used by West European writers at this time. However, the fact that this writer clearly contrasts these 'Arnauts' in Prishtina with the people of the 'surrounding places' suggests that they were inhabitants of the town—in which case they were mostly Muslims, probably Albanian but very possibly including some Slavs.
^Elsie, Robert."1689: Kosovo in the Great Turkish War of 1683-1699".albanianhistory.net.The reputation of this commander grew more and more because of his orderliness such that 5,000 Arnauts [Muslim Albanians] in Pristina [Prishtina] who had risen against the Turks and [the inhabitants of] many of the major towns in the vicinity had given to understand that they would submit to the rule of the Emperor. Thus, when he arrived in Pristina, they swore allegiance to the Emperor and at that moment, this large tract of territory came under the shadow of the laurels of His Imperial Majesty.
^Redlich, Josef; d'Estournelles, Baron; Godart, M. Justin; Shucking, Walter; W. Hirst, Francis; Brailsford, H. N.; Milioukov, Paul; Dutton, Samuel T. (1914)."Report of the International Commission to Inquire into the Causes and the Conduct of the Balkan Wars". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. p. 47. Retrieved10 January 2011.This demonstration of Turkish weakness encouraged new allies, the more so that the promises of Albanian autonomy, covering the four vilayets of Macedonia and Old Servia, directly threatened the Christian nationalities with extermination.
^Mislav Horvat; Jusuf Osmani (2010).Kolonizimi Serbi Kosoves (The Serbian Colonisation of Kosovo). Pristina: REND Prishtinë. p. 67. Retrieved29 March 2020.Se në tregun e Prishtinës, më 18 tetor 1912 më një lirë ari të Turqisë mund të bliheshin 82 fesa turq. Më 10 nëntor 1912, po në këtë treg, një fes mund të blihej me 82 lira ari. Ngritja kaq e lartë e çmimit ishte bërë për shkak se ushtria serbe likuidonte të gjithë njerëzit me plisa të bardhë, ndërsa i kursente ata që mbanin fesin turk në krye.
^Murray 1999, p. 15. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMurray1999 (help)
^Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith; Haynes, Ian; Adams, Colin E. P. (1997).The Roman army as a community. Journal of Roman Archaeology. p. 100.ISBN1887829342. Retrieved 2 March 2014.
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