Prehistory of Colorado provides an overview of the activities that occurred prior toColorado'srecorded history. Colorado experienced cataclysmic geological events over billions of years, which shaped the land and resulted in diverseecosystems. The ecosystems included severalice ages,tropicaloceans, and a massivevolcanic eruption. Then, ancient layers of earth rose to become theRocky Mountains.
Before humans, thedinosaur,mammoth,mastodon,camelops, andgiant bison foraged for food in a verdant land. During the Ice Age summer, humans walked into the present Colorado area as they followed and hunted large animals.
The ancient hunters, thePaleo-Indians, evolved into modernNative American nations. The first people in Colorado werenomads, following and hunting large mammals using theClovis point. AsMegafauna became extinct, people adapted by hunting smaller animals, gathering wild plants, and cultivating food, such asmaize. As the natives became more sedentary, there were significant technological and social advances, including basket, pottery, and tool making, and creation of permanent structures and communities. Trading with other indigenous people expanded the number and type of material items used for material goods, such as sea shells, stones for jewelry and tools, pottery and food.
The following is a summary of geological formations in Colorado:
Precambrianmetamorphic rock that forms the core of the North American continent during thePrecambrian eon 4.5–1 billion years ago. There is also Precambrian sedimentaryargillite, dating back to 1.7 billion years ago. During thePaleozoic, western North America lay underneath a shallow sea, which deposited many kilometers oflimestone anddolomite.[1]
ThePaleozoic era and during thePrecambrian eon, about 300 million to one billion years ago, Pikes Peak Granite was formed from mass amounts of molten rock that would amalgamate, flow and combine, to form the continents. In Colorado it is known as thePrecambrian Pikes Peak Granite. Over the next 500 million years,sedimentation (sediment deposition) occurred after the granite was produced. At about 500 to 300 million years ago, the region began to sink and lime and mud sediments deposited in the newly formed space. Eroded granite produced sand particles that formed strata, layers of sediment, in the sinking basin. At about 300 million years ago the land lifted, creating the ancestral Rocky Mountains.[2]: 1
Fountain Formation was formed during thePennsylvanian period of thePaleozoic era, 290-296 million years ago. Over the next 150 million years, during uplift the mountains would continue to erode and cover themselves in their own sediment. Wind, gravity, rainwater, snow, and ice-melt supplied rivers that ultimately carved through the granite mountains and eventually led to their end.[2]: 6 Fountain Formation isPennsylvanian bedrock unit consisting primarily ofconglomerate,sandstone, orarkose, inColorado andWyoming, along the east side of theFront Range of theRocky Mountains, and along the west edge of theDenver Basin. The characteristic predominant red color and the composition of the Fountain reflect that of thegranites andgneisses from which it was eroded. Related sites are:Flatirons,Garden of the Gods,Red Rocks Park,Roxborough State Park
Lyons Sandstone was formed during thePermian period of thePaleozoic era, 250-280 million years ago. At the beginning of the period, sea levels were low and present-day Colorado was part of the super-continentPangaea. Sand deserts covered most of the area spreading as dunes seen in the rock record, known today as the Lyons Sandstone. These dunes appear to be cross-bedded and show variousfossil footprints and leaf imprints in many of the strata making up the section.[2]: 8 Related sites include:Garden of the Gods,Roxborough State Park, and theLyons and neighboring Hall Ranch Open Space areas.
Lykins Formation was formed during theJurassic andTriassic periods 150-250 million years ago. The sediment deposition of wavy layers of muddylimestone and signs of stromatolites that thrived in a smelly tidal flat at present-day Colorado. The Ancestral Rockies were burying themselves while the shoreline was present during the break-up of Pangaea. This formation began right after Earth's largest extinction 251 million years ago at thePermian-Triassic Boundary. Ninety percent of the planet's marine life was destroyed and a great deal on land as well.[2]: 10 Related sites:Garden of the Gods,Red Rocks Park,Roxborough State Park
The Morrison Formation was formed during theCretaceous andJurassic Period 100-150 million years ago. The Morrison Formation contains some of the best fossils of the Late Jurassic. It is especially known for its sauropod tracks and sauropod bones among other dinosaur fossils. As identified by the fossil record, the environment was filled with various types of vegetation such asferns and zamites.[2]: 12 Related site:Dinosaur Ridge, the roadcut at the Interstate 70 Morrison exit
Dakota Sandstone, formed during theCretaceous period 70 to 100 million years ago, was deposited 100 million years ago towards Colorado's eastern coast. It shows evidence of ferns, and dinosaur tracks. Sheets of ripple marks can be seen on some of the strata, confirming the shallow-sea environment.[2]: 14 Related sites are:Dinosaur Ridge,Garden of the Gods,Roxborough State Park, Deer Creek Canyon Park, the roadcut at the Interstate 70 Morrison exit.
Pierre Shale was formed during thePaleogene andCretaceous periods about 70 million years ago. The region was taken over by a deep sea, theCretaceousWestern Interior Seaway, and deposited mass amounts of shale over the area known as the Pierre Shale. Both the thick section of shale and the marine life fossils found (ammonites and skeletons of fish and such marine reptiles asmosasaurs,plesiosaurs, and extinct species ofsea turtles, along with raredinosaur and bird remains). Colorado eventually drained from being at the bottom of an ocean to land again, giving yield to another fossiliferous rock layer, the Denver Formation. At about 68 million years ago, the Front Range began to rise again due to the Laramide Orogeny in the west.[2]: 16 Related sites are:Garden of the Gods,Fountain Creek Nature Center, Rooney Road nearDinosaur Ridge, Valmont Dike
Fox Hills Formation was formed during thePaleogene /Cretaceous periods. It is a marginal marine yellowsandstone withshale interbeds[3] created with the recedingWestern Interior Seaway in Late Cretaceous time.
Laramie Formation, formed during theCretaceous periods, is a geologic formation of theDenver Basin that ranges from 400 to 500 feet on the western side of the basin and 200–300 feet thick on the eastern side. The formation can be divided into a lower unnamed member containing beddedsandstone,clay, andcoal and an upper unnamed member composed predominately of 90 to 190 m of drab-colored mudstone, some sandstone, and thin coal beds.[4][5][6]
Denver Formation, formed during thePaleogene /Cretaceous periods 55 million years, contains fossils and bones from dinosaurs likeTyrannosaurus rex andTriceratops. While the forests of vegetation, dinosaurs, and other organisms thrived, their reign would come to an end at theCretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–T boundary). In an instant, millions of species are obliterated from a meteor impact in Mexico'sYucatan Peninsula. While this extinction lead to the dinosaurs' and other organisms' demise, some life did prevail to repopulate the earth as it recovered from this tremendous disaster. The uplifted Front Range continued to constantly erode and, by 40 million years ago, the range was once again buried in its own rubble.[2]: 18 Related sites are: Austin Bluffs Park, Green Mountain,Palmer Park, Pulpit Rock Park,South Table Mountain
Dawson Arkose, formed during thePaleogene period 37-55 million years ago, is up to 20 foot thick, multi-colored layers of clay form in this prehistoric tropical forest. This layer, Paleosol, is a soil of fossils such as petrified wood. An uplift occurred on the Front Range that caused the Pikes Peak granite to become exposed and then erode on the surface, resulting in a white sandstone called Dawson Arkose.[2]: 24 Related sites are:Castlewood Canyon State Park, Daniel's Park, Paint Mines Interpretive Park, Rock Park
Castle Rock rhyolite was formed during thePaleogene period 34-37 million years ago. 37 million years ago, a great volcanic eruption took place in the Collegiate Range and covered the landscape in molten hot ash that instantly torched and consumed everything across the landscape. An entire lush environment was capped in a matter of minutes with 20 feet of extremely resistant rock,rhyolite.[2]: 26 Related sites are:Castlewood Canyon State Park,Molly Brown House Museum, Rocks Park and mesa tops betweenCastle Rock andMonument Hill
The White River Formation is found in the Northeastern corner of the Colorado, and was deposited between ~37.2 and ~30.8 Ma, encompassing parts of the lateEocene and earlyOligocene. The formation is composed primarily ofclaystones,mudstones, andsiltstones, within which a variety of fossil organisms, collectively referred to as theWhite River fauna, can be found. The fossil assemblage of the formation includes tortoises, alligators, predatory birds,Perissodactyls such as primitivehorses andrhinoceroses,Entelodonts,Nimravids,rodents,Artiodactyls, and other mammals. The paleoenvironment of the formation has been interpreted as being composed of expansive savannah-woodlands and plains, occasionally interrupted by meandering rivers.[7]
Castle Rock conglomerate was formed 16,000 – 34 million years ago. However, as seen before, life rebounds, and after a few million years mass floods cut through the rhyolite and eroded much of it as plants and animals began to recolonize the landscape. The mass flooding and erosion of the volcanic rock gave way to the Castle Rock Conglomerate that can be found in the Front Range. About 10 million years ago, the Front Range began to rise up again and the resistant granite in the heart of the mountains thrust upwards and stood tall, while the weaker sediments deposited above it eroded away.[2]: 28 Related sites:Castlewood Canyon State Park, Rocks Park
Quaternary Sediments were formed during thePleistocene period, or Ice Age Summer, 11,000-16,000 years ago. As the Front Range rose, streams and recent (16,000 years ago) glaciations during theQuaternary age literally unburied the range by cutting through the weaker sediment, creating mesa tops and alluvial plains, and giving rise to the present Rocky Mountains. The receding glaciers and warming into an Ice Age summer created a climate suitable tocamelops,mastodon,mammoth,bison antiquus and othermegafauna.[2]: 30 Related sites: Carson Nature Center, Highlands Ranch Open Space, Sand Creek Drainage, South Platte Park
Paleoclimatology is the study of prehistoric weather. TheEemianinterglacial period spanned 130,000–114,000 BP. TheLaurentide Ice Sheet covered much of Canada and the northern United States from ca. 95,000 and ca. 20,000 years before present.
Colorado has one of the most diverse plant and animal environments of the United States, partially born from the dramatic temperature changes due to elevation changes and topography. The difference in elevation from the lowest ecosystems to the peaks of the Rocky Mountains is 12,000 feet. In dry climates, theaverage temperature drops 5.4 degrees Fahrenheit with every 1,000 foot increase in elevation (9.8 degrees Celsius per 1,000 meters). The mountains receive the most precipitation, which the lower altitude zones on the eastern and westernmost side of the state are semi-arid, receiving comparatively little precipitation.[8]: 10–13
TheDenver Museum of Nature and Science developed an eight-zone classification of ecosystems, defined primarily by the most present dominant plant life:[8]: 17
Since thePrecambrian eon, the land forms have lifted, receded and have been eroded; global temperature has vacillated from tropical to ice age,[2]: 1–2 which significantly affected the number and type of ecosystems and what animal and plant life flourished during each geological period.[2]: 6–32
The period immediately preceding the first humans coming into Colorado was theIce Age Summer starting about 16,000 years ago. For the next five thousand years the landscape would change dramatically and most of the large animals would become extinct. Receding and melting glaciers created the Plum and Monument Creeks, the Castle Rock mesas and unburied theRocky Mountains. Large mammals, such as themastodon,mammoth,camels,giant sloths,cheetah,bison antiquus andhorses roamed the land.[9]: 5
Sites for the early Paleo-Indian period are found on the plains (eastern half of the state), but later in the period, there are sites found in both the mountains and plains of Colorado.[10]
Pre-Clovis period is defined by Paleo-Indian hunting before the use ofClovis points.[11]: 53–54 An example isLamb Spring in Littleton, with mammoth bones dated 14,140 to 12,140 years ago and hunting by use of stone tools other than Clovis points. Other examples include Dutton and Selby in the far eastern edge of Colorado.[11]: 54–57
Some Paleo-Indian cultures were distinctive by the size of the tools they used and the animals they hunted. People in the first Clovis complex period had large tools to hunt themegafauna animals of the early Paleo-Indian period.[9]: 5 A keyClovis culture site is theDent site discovered in 1932 inWeld County, the first site to provide evidence that humans and mammoth co-existed, and that humans hunted mammoths on the North American continent (but see above).[11]: 58–67
With time, the climate warmed again and lakes and savannas receded. The land became drier, food became less abundant, and as a result many of the giant mammals became extinct. People adapted by hunting bison and smaller mammals and gathering wild plants to supplement their diet.[12] A new cultural complex was born, the Folsom tradition,[2]: 30 with smaller projectile points to hunt smaller animals.[9]: 5 Aside from hunting smaller mammals, people adapted by gathering wild plants to supplement their diet.[12] Examples of the Folsom tradition in Colorado are theLindenmeier site,Olsen-Chubbuck Bison Kill Site andJones-Miller Bison Kill Sites. Aside from other sites on the Plains, there are also Folsom sites inMiddle Park and theSan Luis Valley of Colorado.[11]: 70–78
Plano cultures existed from about 10,000 to 7000 BC and are distinguished by their use of long,lanceolate and unfluted blades. Some of the best documented Plano sites are located in Colorado.[11]: 79 Cody complex is aPlano culture that used unfluted projectile points and other tools like the Folsom and Clovis cultures from about 9000 to 7000 BC.[11]: 82–83 Olsen-Chubbuck Bison Kill Site,Jurgens Site andLamb Spring are Cody complex sites.Hell Gap complex, also aPlano culture, from 10,060 to 9600 before present (roughly 8050 to 7590 BC) was named for theHell Gap, Wyomingarchaeological site. It is distinguished by its long stemmed, convex and unfluted Hell Gap points.Jones-Miller Bison Kill Site is the only Hell Gap location in Colorado.[11]: 79
Other Paleo-Indian sites areRoxborough State Park Archaeological District and, with artifacts from theGoshen complex,Plainview complex,Phillips-Williams Fork Reservoir Site.
The Archaic period began about 7,000 years ago.Bison antiquus had become extinct, like the othermegafauna, and people became reliant on smaller game, such asdeer,pronghorns, andrabbits, and gathering wild plants. Their tool kits became larger, with greater reliance onmanos andmetates to grind food and changes in weapons for hunting, such as notchedprojectile points. They used plant fibers to make cordage, nets or traps to catch small animals and baskets to gather food.
The people moved seasonally to hunting and gathering sites. They lived inrock shelters, such as south-facing shelters that were warm in the winter and cool in the summer, and open-air campsites. Archaic people roamed the plains and the mountains, although hunting and gathering sufficient food to feed the band of people was more difficult in the higher-altitude ecological climates. Late in the Archaic period, about 200 to 500,maize was introduced into the diet and pottery-making became an occupation for storing and carrying food.[11]: 95–99 [13]
TheApex complex is a cultural tradition of theMiddle Archaic period, distinguished by Apexprojectile points dated from about 3000 to 500 BCE. Thetype site is theMagic Mountain site near Apex Creek. The Irwins, archaeologists at Magic Mountain, believe that the artifacts are from theArchaic–Early andEarly Basketmaker II periods of theAncestral Puebloans ofOasisamerica.[14]
TheArchaic–Early Basketmaker period (7000–1500 BCE) was a cultural period of ancestors to the Ancestral Puebloans, represented in Colorado only in the southwestern part of the state. They were distinguished from otherArchaic people of the Southwest by their basketry, which was used to gather and store food. They became reliant on wild seeds, grasses, nuts and fruit for food and changed their movement patterns and lifestyle by maximizing the edible wild food and small game within a geographical region. Manos andmetates began to be used to process seeds and nuts. With the extinction ofmegafauna, hunters adapted their tools, using spears with smaller projectile points and thenatlatl and darts. They lived in simple dwellings made of wood, brush and earth.[15][16][17][18]
TheMount Albion complex was an early Archaic culture (about 4050 to 3050 BCE) distinguished by the Mount Albion corner-notched projectile. It is the best-known early Archaic culture in Colorado.[19]: xlvii, 11, 488 [20]Hungry Whistler Site, a kill and butchering site, at 11,500 feet (3,500 m) is thetype site dated from about 3850 to 3060 BC.[20]LoDaisKa site,Magic Mountain site,Franktown Cave and Mount Albion are examples of the Mount Albion complex.[21]
Examples of Archaic sites areColorado Millennial Site,Franktown Cave,LoDaisKa site,Magic Mountain site,Picture Canyon,Roxborough State Park Archaeological District, andTrinchera Cave Archeological District.
Apishapa phase (ca. 1000-1400) was first identified in the Lower Apishapa canyon and is distinguished by stone or slab constructed structures, cord-wrapped pottery and small projectile points. They were a tradition ofhunter gatherers who sometimes farmed and lived in northern New Mexico or southern Colorado in rockshelters, single or multi-room stone or slab structures or in campsites.[19]: 4 There are at least 68 Apishapa sites on the Chaquaqua Plateau in southeastern Colorado.[14]: 89 Some sites where Apishapa archaeological evidence has been found includeFranktown Cave,Picture Canyon andTrinchera Cave Archeological District.
The Dismal River culture was first seen in theDismal River area of Nebraska. Dated between 1650 and 1750, it is different than other prehistoricGreat Plains andWoodland traditions. The people were hunter-gatherers who also cultivated food and had a distinctive pottery style. Dismal River villages often had 15-20 round dwellings roughly 25 feet (7.6 m) in diameter.Plains Apache were linked to the culture.[11]: 234, 236 [19]: 212, 213, 768 [22] Some Colorado sites includeCedar Point Village andFranktown Cave
Panhandle culture (AD 1200 to 1400) is a culture of the southern High Plains, primarily located in thepanhandle andwest central Oklahoma and the northern half of theTexas Panhandle. Most of the sites are centered around theCanadian River or its tributaries, primarily Antelope Creek and also Cottonwood Creek, Dixon Creek, Tarbox Creek and also on the Archie King Ranch. Distinguishing characteristics of the Panhandle culture are: great similarity to theCentral Plains complexes; some evidence of trading or influence ofSouthwesternpueblo cultures; and single or multi-roomed stone structures.[14]: 87 For Colorado sites, seeTrinchera Cave Archeological District as well as theApishapa culture andSopris phase articles.
Sopris phase (AD 1000 to 1250) was first found in southeastern Colorado, near the present town of Trinidad. Although the culture appeared to have been greatly influenced by pueblo people, such as theTaos Pueblo and trade in the Upper Rio Grande, the Sopris culture was generally ahunter-gatherer tradition.[14]: 94–95 SeeTrinchera Cave Archeological District
The Plains Woodland period, or Ceramic period, began in the Plains about AD 1 with the defining distinction of the creation of cordwrapped pottery, development of settlement areas, and use of smaller projectile points for hunting smaller game or bow and arrow technology.[14]: 41 Sites includeColorado Millennial Site,Franktown Cave,LoDaisKa site,Magic Mountain site,Picture Canyon, andRoxborough State Park Archaeological District
| Ancestral Puebloan periods |
|---|
 |
| Archaic–Early Basketmaker 7000–1500 BCE |
| Early Basketmaker II 1500 BCE–50 CE |
| Late Basketmaker II 50–500 |
| Basketmaker III 500–750 |
| Pueblo I 750–900 |
| Pueblo II 900–1150 |
| Pueblo III 1150–1350 |
| Pueblo IV 1350–1600 |
| Pueblo V 1600–present |
TheEarly Basketmaker II period (1500 BCE to 50 CE) was the first post-Archaic cultural period of the Ancient Puebloans. The era began with the cultivation ofmaize in the northern part of Oasisamerica, although there was not a dependence upon agriculture until about 500 BCE.[23]
They were named "Basketmakers" for their skill in making baskets for storing food, covering with pitch to heat water, and using to toast seeds and nuts. They wove bags, sandals, and belts out of yucca plants and leaves, and strung beads. They occasionally lived in dry caves where they dug pits and lined with stones to store food.[24]: 27–30 [25]
During theLate Basketmaker II period (50 to 500), people living in theFour Corners region were introduced tomaize andbasketry throughMesoamerican trading. Able to have greater control of their diet through cultivation, the hunter-gatherers' lifestyle became more sedentary as small, dispersed groups began cultivating maize andsquash. They also continued to hunt and gather wild plants.[24]: 27–30
TheBasketmaker III period (500 to 750) resulted in the introduction of pottery which reduced the number of baskets that they made and eliminated the creation of woven bags. The simple, gray pottery allowed them a better tool for cooking and storage. Beans were added to the cultivated diet. Bows and arrows made hunting easier and thus the acquisition of hides for clothing.Turkey feathers were woven into blankets and robes. On the rim of Mesa Verde, small groups built pit houses, which were built several feet below the surface, with elements suggestive of the introduction of celebration rituals.[24]: 33–37
Pueblo buildings were built during thePueblo I period (750 to 900) with stone, wooden posts, and adobe. The buildings were located more closely together and reflected deepening religious celebration. Towers were built near kivas and likely used for look-outs. Pottery became more versatile, not just for cooking, but now included pitchers, ladles, bowls, jars and dishware for food and drink. White pottery with black designs emerged, the pigments coming from plants. Water management and conservation techniques, including the use of reservoirs and silt-retaining dams, also emerged during this period.[24]: 39–45
During thePueblo II period (900 to 1150), there was an increase in population that resulted in the creation of more than 10,000 sites in 150 years. Since much of the land was arid, the people supplemented their diet by hunting, foraging and trading pottery for food.[26] By the end of the period, there were two-story dwellings made primarily of stone masonry, the presence of towers, and family and community kivas.[24]: 39–45 [27][28]
Rohn and Ferguson, authors ofPuebloan ruins of the Southwest, state that during thePueblo III period (1150 to 1300), there was a significant community change. Moving in from dispersed farmsteads into community centers at pueblos canyon heads orcliff dwellings on canyon shelves. Population peaked between 1200 and 1250 to more than 20,000 in theMesa Verde region.[29] By 1300 Ancient Pueblo People abandoned their settlements, as the result of climate changes and food shortage, and migrated south to villages in Arizona and New Mexico,[29] where people lived through thePueblo IV period and thePueblo V period, the latter including the life of currentPueblo peoples.
After AD 1300,hunter-gatherers, ancestors of theUte andNavajo, moved into the southwesternColorado and southeasternUtah and came to inhabit the region.[30] The Ute arrived in Colorado by the 1600s and occupied much of the present state of Colorado. They were followed by the Comanches from the south in the 1700s, and then the Arapaho and Cheyenne from the plains who then dominated the plains of Colorado. The Cheyenne, Arapaho and Comanche were the largest group of indigenous people in Colorado at the time of contact with settlers.[31]
The Apache presence in Colorado includes theJicarilla Apache andDismal River cultures. TheJicarilla Apaches are one of theAthabaskan linguistic groups that migrated out of Canada, by 1525 CE,[32] and lived in what they then considered their land bounded by four sacred Rivers in northernNew Mexico and southernColorado: theRio Grande,Pecos River,Arkansas River, and theCanadian River containing sacred mountain peaks and ranges. They also ranged out into the plains of northwesternTexas and the western portions ofOklahoma andKansas. The Jicarilla Apache were hunter-gatherers, hunting primarily buffalo through the 17th century and thereafter added smaller game to their diet. Women gathered berries, agave, honey, onions, potatoes, nuts and seeds. Some bands practiced seasonalagriculture along the upperArkansas River, cultivating squash, beans, pumpkins, melons, peas, wheat, and corn.[33][34][35][36]
It is unclear how and when the Arapaho entered theGreat Plains, they most likely lived inMinnesota andNorth Dakota before entering the Plains. Before European expansion into the area, the Arapahos were living on the plains in South Dakota, Nebraska, Colorado, Wyoming, and Kansas. They were close allies of theCheyenne. In winter, the tribe split up into camps sheltered in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains in present-day Colorado. In late spring they moved out onto the Plains into large camps to hunt buffalo gathering for the birthing season. In mid-summer Arapahos traveled into the Parks region of Colorado to hunt mountain herds, returning onto the Plains in late summer to autumn for ceremonies and for collective hunts of herds gathering for the rutting season.
The Cheyenne arrived in the Colorado area shortly after the Arapaho, spoke both of theAlgonquian languages, lived on the plains east of the Rocky Mountains with the Arapaho. The Cheyenne and Arapaho banded together against the Comanche, Kiowa, Shoshone and Ute.[31][37]
The Comanche arrived in the Colorado area from theGreat Basin and northern plains. They spoke a Shoshone language and by the time of contact with settlers were located in southeastern Colorado, south of the Arkansas River. To the north of the river were the Arapaho and Cheyenne. Allied with the Ute, they fought against the Apache. Their limited archaeological artifacts include a flat-bottomed pottery known as Intermountain tradition or Shooshonean pottery, like the ceramics found at Graever Cave and Roberts Buffalo Jump.[11]: 244–248 [31]
The ancestors to the Navajo were one of the tribes of the southern division of theAthabaskan language family that migrated south from Alaska and northwestern Canada, most likely traveling through theGreat Basin.[38] The Navajo ancestors were in the area after AD 1300, but at least by the early 1500s.[30]
The Pawnee ranged through theGreat Plains and were first documented byFrancisco Vázquez de Coronado when he met a Pawnee chief from Nebraska in 1541. Regarding Colorado, they hunted bison on plains of eastern Colorado.[31]
Ute tribal ancestors migrated east from California in the 12th century. Before the 17th century, more of these indigenous people migrated from across both theGreat Basin andUtah to occupy most of Colorado; more places occupied by the Ute tribe were northern New Mexico, Wyoming and Arizona .[30][31][39][40][41] The Ute also stand as the oldest inhabitants of Colorado at the time of European contact, who chose a variety of locations for camps and routes; such as the Ute trail in the forest of theGrand Mesa.[41] The language spoken by this tribe is a certain dialect of theUte-Aztecan language,Shoshonean. it is generally believed that the migration of the Ute was in part an effort to separate themselves from other Shoshonean speaking tribes, such asShoshone Bannock,Paiute,Comanche,Goshute, andChemehuevi.[41]
About AD 1700, the Ute and Apache shared the present state of Colorado, the Ute primarily and steadfastly in the Rocky Mountains and west and the Apache on the eastern plains. The Comanche entered the eastern half of Colorado early in the 1700s and with the Ute pressed the Apache to the southeastern portion of Colorado between about 1700–1750. By about 1820 the Comanche territory was the eastern part of the state. Between about 1820 and 1830 the Arapaho and Cheyenne, who had arrived from the northeast, pressed down the eastern side of Colorado pressuring the Comanche to the south, below the Arkansas River.[11]: 249
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