Prior to the rise ofanarchism as ananti-authoritarianpolitical philosophy in the 19th century, both individuals and groups expressed some principles of anarchism in their lives and writings.
The longest period of human existence - before recorded history - lacked a separate class of established authority or formal political institutions.[1] Long before anarchism emerged as a distinct perspective, human beings lived for thousands of years in self-governing societies without a special ruling or political class.[2] It was only after the rise of hierarchical societies that anarchist ideas were formulated as a critical response to and rejection of coercive political institutions and hierarchical social relationships.[3]
Taoism, a school of thought which developed inancient China, has been embraced by some anarchists as a source of anarchistic attitudes. The Taoist sages Lao Zi (Lao Tzu,fl.c. 5th century BCE) andZhuang Zhou (c. 369 toc. 286 BCE) whose philosophy was rather based on an "anti-polity" stance and rejection of any kind of involvement in political movements or organisations, developed a philosophy of "non-rule" in theZhuang Zhou and theTao Te Ching, and many Taoists in response lived an anarchic lifestyle.[4] There is an ongoing debate whether exhorting rulers not to rule belongs to the sphere of anarchism.[5] A new generation of Taoist thinkers with anarchic leanings appeared during the chaoticWei-Jin period of 220 to 420 CE. Taoist principles were akin tophilosophical anarchism, trying to delegitimate the state and question its morality. Taoism andneo-Taoism were pacifist schools of thought, in contrast with many of their Western anarchist counterparts some centuries later.[6]
Some convictions and ideas deeply held by modern anarchists were first expressed inancient Greece.[7] The first known political usage of the wordanarchy[a] appears in the playSeven Against Thebes byAeschylus, dated to 467 BC. There,Antigone openly refuses to abide by the rulers' decree to leave her brother Polyneices' body unburied as punishment for his participation in the attack onThebes.Sophocles used the same theme 50 years later, in his tragedyAntigone, where the heroine challenges the established order of Thebes, coming in direct conflict with the established authority of the town.[10]
Ancient Greece also saw the first Western instance of anarchic philosophical ideals, including those of theCynics andStoics. The CynicsDiogenes of Sinope (died 323 BCE) andCrates of Thebes (c. 365 –c. 285 BCE) are both supposed to have advocated anarchistic forms of society, although little remains of their writings. Their most significant contribution was the radical approach ofnomos (law) andphysis (nature). Contrary to the rest of Greek philosophy (which aimed to blendnomos andphysis in harmony), Cynics dismissednomos (and in consequence: the authorities, hierarchies, establishments and moral code of thepolis) while promoting a way of life, based solely onphysis.[11]Zeno of Citium (c. 334 –c. 262 BCE), the founder of Stoicism, who was much influenced by the Cynics, described his vision of an egalitarianutopian society around 300 BC.[12] Zeno'sRepublic advocates an anarchic form of society in which there is no need for state structures. He argued that although the necessary instinct ofself-preservation leads humans toegotism, nature has supplied a corrective to it by providing man with another instinct, namelysociability. Like many modern anarchists, he believed that if people follow their instincts, they will have no need oflaw courts or police, no temples and no publicworship and will use no money (free gifts taking the place of the exchanges).[13]
Socrates, as appropriate to anarchism, constantly questioned authority and centred his philosophy upon every man's right to freedom of consciousness.[14]Aristippus, a pupil of Socrates and founder of theHedonistic school, claimed that he wished neither to rule nor be ruled, and also he saw the state as a danger to personal autonomy.[15] Not all in ancient Greece had anarchic tendencies though, other philosophers asPlato andAristotle used the term anarchy negatively in association withdemocracy which they mistrusted as inherently vulnerable and prone to deteriorate intotyranny.[16]
In medieval Persia,Mazdak, aZoroastrian prophet and heretic now considered a proto-socialist, called for free love, abolition of private property and overthrow of the king.[17] He saw sharing as a religious duty and that no one should have more than others, though sources dispute whether he advocated communal ownership orredistribution. The latter claim being that he gave land, possessions, women and slaves from the rich to the poor.[18] He and his thousands of followers were massacred in 582 CE but his teaching went on to influence Islamic sects of the following centuries.[19]
A theological form on anarchic Islam developed inBasra andBaghdad amongMu'tazilite ascetics andNajdiyyaKharijites. This Islamic tendency was not communist or egalitarian and did not resemble current concepts of anarchism, but preached that the state was harmful, illegitimate, immoral and unnecessary.[20]
In Europe, Christianity was overshadowing all aspects of life.Brethren of the Free Spirit was the most notable example of heretic belief that had some vaguely anarchic tendencies. They held anticleric sentiments and believed in total freedom. Even though most of their ideas were individualistic, the movement had a social impact, influencing riots and rebellions in Europe for years to come.[21] Other anarchistic religious movements in Europe during theMiddle Ages, include theHussites,Adamites and theearly Anabaptists.[22]
20th century historianJames Joll describes anarchist history as two opposing sides. One, the zealotic and ascitic religious movements of the Middle Ages which rejected institutions, laws, and the established order. The other, the theories of the 18th century based on rationalism and logic. According to Joll, these two currents later blended to form a contradictory movement that nonetheless resonated to a very broad audience.[23]
With the spread of theRenaissance across Europe,anti-authoritarian andsecular ideas re-emerged, in response to the growingcentralization of power byabsolute monarchies.[24] The most prominent thinkers advocating for liberty, mainlyFrench, were employing Utopia in their works, to bypass strict state censorship. InGargantua and Pantagruel (1532–1552),François Rabelais wrote of the Abby ofThelema (Greek word meaning "will" or "wish"), an imaginary utopia whose motto was "Do as Thou Will".[25] Around the same time, the French law studentEtienne de la Boetie wrote hisDiscourse on Voluntary Servitude in which he argued that tyranny resulted from voluntary submission and could be abolished by the people refusing to obey the authorities above them.[26] Later, still in France,Gabriel de Foigny perceived a Utopia with freedom-loving people without government and no need of religion, as he wrote inThe Southern Land, Known.[27] Geneva authorities jailed Foigny for that book.François Fénelon also used Utopia to project his political views, in a book (Telemaque) that infuriatedLouis XIV.[28]
InItaly,Niccolò Machiavelli also is said by Paul McLaughlin to have laid some foundations for modern anarchism, particularly in his development ofpolitical science.[29] Machiavelli's subversion ofpolitical ethics was adopted by classical anarchists such asMikhail Bakunin, who explicitly declared "Machiavelli was right".[b] However, anarchism was constructed as apolitical philosophy to fundamentally question the legitimacy of political systems and offer alternatives, itself raising ethical questions of political justice. Bakunin thus elaborated on this departure of anarchism from Machiavellianism:[30]
we are the sons of the Revolution and we have inherited from it the Religion of Humanity which we have to found upon the ruins of the Religion of Divinity. We believe in the rights of man, in the dignity and necessary emancipation of the human species. We believe in human liberty and human fraternity based upon human justice.
SomeReformation currents (likeradical reformist movement ofAnabaptists) are sometimes accredited as the religious forerunners of modern anarchism. Even though it was a religious revolution and strengthened the state, it also open the road for the humanistic values of theFrench Revolution.[31] During theEnglish Civil War,Christian anarchism found one of its most articulate forerunners inGerrard Winstanley, who was part of theDiggers movement. Winstanley published a pamphlet calling for communal ownership and social and economic organization in small agrarian communities. Drawing on the Bible, he argued that "the blessings of the earth" should "be common to all" and "none Lord over others".[32] TheLevellers andJohn Lilburne were noted to have opposed authority "in all its forms and aspects", which resulted in Lilburne's exile and later imprisonment bythe Protectorate ofOliver Cromwell.[33]
In theNew World, religious dissenterRoger Williams founded the colony ofProvidence, Rhode Island after being run out of thetheocraticPuritanMassachusetts Bay Colony in 1636. Unlike the Puritans, he scrupulously purchased land from localAmerican Indians for his settlement.[34] Williams' discipleWilliam Harris, was described by theFrench individualist anarchistÉmile Armand as having "thundered against the immorality of all earthly powers, and against the crime of all punishment," leading Armand to ask if he was "a mystical visionary or an isolated anarchist?"[35] TheQuaker sect, mostly because of their pantheism, had some anarchic tendencies—values that would later influenceBenjamin Tucker.[36] The first to use the term "anarchy" to mean something other than chaos wasLouis-Armand, Baron de Lahontan in hisNouveaux voyages dans l'Amérique septentrionale (New Voyages in Northern America, 1703), where he described theindigenous American society which had no state, laws, prisons, priests or private property as being in anarchy.[37]William Blake has also been said to espouse an anarchistic political position.[16]
TheScientific Revolution had given thinkers of the time the confidence that humans could reason for themselves and when nature was tamed through science, society could be set free.[38] Developing from the earlier thought of the Renaissance, theAge of Enlightenment saw a further eruption ofsecular andhumanistic thought, spurred on by the foundation ofrationalism byRené Descartes. The prevailing mood of rationalism at the time was summed up by philosopherDenis Diderot, when he declared: "everything must be examined, everything must be shaken up, without exception and without circumspection."[39] Central to the thought of this new generation ofphilosophers was the idea of man's inherently progressive nature, that people were notbound by sin and couldimprove in the right circumstances, namely through education. Inspired by theliberalism ofJohn Locke, the French philosopherVoltaire openly opposedabsolutism and advocated instead forconstitutionalism. Voltaire'santi-authoritarianism was carried further byDenis Diderot, who privately mused on societies without laws or governments, andJean-Jacques Rousseau, who argued thathuman nature was fundamentally good and that people had only become corrupted by unjustinstitutions.[40]
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Ideas approaching anarchism were developed byJean Meslier andÉtienne-Gabriel Morelly, who extended the enlightenment criticisms of absolutism to all institutions. Meslier, a Catholic priest, privately wrote aTestament thatdenounced all religion as being actively harmful to people,[41] espousing a revolutionary atheist philosophy that called for the abolition of economic inequalities and coercive laws.[42] "More of an anarchist than an atheist", he analyzed the troubles of humankind as being due to individuals' desire to command and control others, either from political or clerical positions, and called for the poor to overthrow both church and state in a violentsocial revolution.[43] TheTestament went on to influence Voltaire, who expanded on Meslier's anti-clerical critiques in hisDictionnaire philosophique and on his anti-authoritarianism inCandide.[44] These critiques found further expression inThe System of Nature byBaron d'Holbach, who put forward amaterialistic philosophy thatrejected religion and upheld thescientific method, which he believed would lead to the maximization ofhappiness. In later works, he advocated the minimization of government and the establishment in its place of autilitariansocial contract between citizens.[45]
In hisCode de la nature, Morelly denounced the systems ofprivate property andsocial stratification as unnatural. He believed in the goodness of human nature, which he argued had been corrupted by institutions that transformed an individual'senlightened self-interest intoselfishness.[46] He concluded by advocating for a return fromman-made laws tonatural law, and for the restitution ofcommunal andpersonalproperty rights.[47] In his argument for the abolition of private property, Morelly espoused anearly form of communism. His communist society, governed by "natural law", mandatedcompulsory education andlabor, centered the role of thefamily in society, and had aminimal government in place solely to oversee the economy and punishdissenters. Morelly's communism went on to inspire the revolutionaryFrançois-Noël Babeuf and utopianCharles Fourier, as well as the anarchistsPierre-Joseph Proudhon andPeter Kropotkin.[48]
As anencyclopaedist,Denis Diderot believed in the progress of humankind through the expansion of free and accessible education.[48] He publicly advocated forenlightened absolutism through the formation of asocial contract between a monarch and their subjects, which would ensure the passage ofutilitarian policy that would reflect thegeneral will of the people.[49] In his novelJacques the Fatalist, Diderot argued for a form ofdeterminism while also criticising the abdication ofmoral responsibility. In his dialogueRameau's Nephew, he reveled inhedonism while still holding strongly tovirtue ethics, encouraging natural legislation that would "encourage and apply the [passions of men] to both public and private interest."[50] But in private, Diderot's thought was far more radical, believing that "nature gave no man the right to rule over others". At parties, he openly expressed a love of individual freedom and declared that "nature has made neither servant nor master; I neither want to give nor receive laws!"[51] Diderot also believed in replacing man-made laws with natural ones, in one of his works depicting children rebelling against theirstrict father, one of them justifying themselves by saying "there are no laws at all for the wise".[52] In hisSupplement to the Voyage of Bougainville, Diderot depictedTahiti as utopian stateless society, one characterised bycommon ownership,free love andleisure.[53] Following a "rationalcode of conduct", Diderot'sTahitians argued for the maximization ofliberty andutility through anappeal to nature. Diderot directly criticised theWestern civilization that had been imposed on Tahiti byFrench colonization, responding with a call for the abolition of both civic and religious institutions, claiming that "to order things is always to make oneself master of others by disturbing them".[54]
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The early work ofJean-Jacques Rousseau was noted for itslibertarianism,[55] summed up in his famous line: "man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains."[45] In hisDiscourse on Inequality, he developed on the idea of the inherent goodness of human nature and its corruption by existing institutions,[56] analyzing that it was the emergence of private property that had been the main cause of the development ofsocial inequality.[57] He argued that after the foundation of private property, government was established to enforce them and began a process of developing towardsautocracy.[58] Although Rousseau's analysis of the rise of inequality had inspired anarchists such asWilliam Godwin, who declared that "government, however formed, was little capable of affording solid benefit to mankind", Rousseau himself did not call for the abolition of government.[59] His call for aliberatory form of education inEmile also inspired later anarchists, despite hisauthoritarian view of the teacher.[60] It was Rousseau's publication ofThe Social Contract that marked the beginning of his turn from libertarian to authoritarian tendencies, particularly with his theory of a "general will" of the people.[61] Rousseau's conception of the state wastotalitarian, proposing acorporate state where the individual was completely subordinate to society, where adictatorial elite would work to interpret "general will" and implement it, executing anyone thatdissented.[62] Rousseau's shift from a lover of individual liberty to an apologist fortotalitarian democracy was noted by anarchists, withMikhail Bakunin decrying him as "the true creator of modemreaction. To all appearance the most democratic writer of the eighteenth century, he bred within himself the pitilessdespotism of the statesman. He was the prophet of the doctrinaire State, asRobespierre, his worthy and faithful disciple,tried to become itshigh priest."[63] Despite this, the historianPeter Marshall said that the earlier work of Rousseau "deserves a prominent place in the anarchist tradition", due to his historical analysis of social inequality, his praise for thestate of nature and the natural goodness of humanity, and his defense of egalitarianism andpopular democracy.[64]
The end of the Enlightenment with the outbreak of theAtlantic Revolutions brought about the first clear expression of anarchist ideas, with the work ofWilliam Godwin.[42] In hisEnquiry Concerning Political Justice, Godwin argued against the legitimacy of government and called for the expansion of education, under the belief that individual reason alone was sufficient to replace the law and establish a system ofdecentralizeddirect democracy in place of the state: "there will be no war, no crimes, no administration of justice, as it is called, and no government."[65] In order for this rationalism to flourish, Godwin called for the maximization of individual liberty and social equality. He believed that to achieve a rational society it would be necessary to eliminate poverty, chiefly through the distribution of property equally among all people.[66]Peter Kropotkin would later claim Godwin to be a forerunner ofanarcho-communism.[67]
The French Revolution has been a landmark in the history of anarchism. The use of revolutionary violence by masses to achieve political ends has been in the imaginary of anarchists of the forthcoming centuries and events asWomen's March on Versailles, theStorming of the Bastille or theRéveillon riots were seen as the revolutionary archetype.[68] In his "Manifesto of the Equals",Sylvain Maréchal looked forward to the disappearance, once and for all, of "the revolting distinction between rich and poor, of great and small, of masters and valets, of governors and governed".[32] Anarchists would identify themselves with theenrages orsans-culottes. TheEnragés (Enraged Ones) opposed revolutionary government as a contradiction in terms. Denouncing theJacobin dictatorship,Jean Varlet wrote in 1794 that "government and revolution are incompatible, unless the people wish to set its constituted authorities in permanent insurrection against itself".[69] French Revolution depicted in the common subconscious of anarchists that as soon as the rebels seize power, they would become the new tyrants, something that was evident by the State orchestrated violence of theReign of Terror. The proto-anarchist groups of enrages and sans-culottes were ultimately erased at the edge of the guillotine.[70]
The debate of the effects of the French Revolution to the anarchist causes spans to our days. For anarchist historian Max Nettlau, French revolutions did nothing more than re-shaping and modernizing the militaristic state,[71] while Kropotkin traced the origins of the anarchist movement in the struggle of the revolutionaries.[72] In a more moderate approach, Sean Sheehan points out that the French Revolution proved that even the strongest political establishments can be overthrown.[73]
