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Insignal processing,pre-emphasis is a technique to protect against anticipated noise and loss. The idea is to boost (and hence distort) the frequency range that is most susceptible to noise and loss beforehand, so that after a noisy and lossy process (transmission over cable, tape recording...) more information can be recovered from that frequency range. Removal of the distortion caused by pre-emphasis is calledde-emphasis, making the output accurately reproduce the original input.
Emphasis is commonly used in many places ranging fromFM broadcasting (preemphasis improvement) andvinyl (e.g.LP) records toPCI Express. For example, high-frequency signal components may be emphasized to produce a more equalmodulation index for a transmitted frequency spectrum, and therefore a bettersignal-to-noise ratio for the entirefrequency range.
In processing electronicaudio signals, pre-emphasis refers to a system process designed to increase (within afrequency band) the magnitude of some (usually higher) frequencies with respect to the magnitude of other (usually lower) frequencies in order to improve the overall signal-to-noise ratio by minimizing the adverse effects of such phenomena asattenuation distortion orsaturation of recording media in subsequent parts of the system. The mirror operation is called de-emphasis, and the system as a whole is called emphasis.
Pre-emphasis is achieved with apre-emphasis network which is essentially a calibratedfilter. Thefrequency response is decided by specialtime constants. Thecutoff frequency can be calculated from that value.
Pre-emphasis is commonly used intelecommunications,digital audio recording,record cutting, inFM broadcastingtransmissions, and in displaying thespectrograms of speech signals. One example of this is theRIAA equalization curve on 33 rpm and 45 rpmvinyl records. Another is theDolby noise-reduction system as used with magnetic tape.
Pre-emphasis is employed infrequency modulation orphase modulation transmitters to equalize the modulatingsignal drivepower in terms ofdeviation ratio. The receiverdemodulation process includes a reciprocal network, called a de-emphasis network, to restore the original signal power distribution.
In telecommunications,de-emphasis is the complement of pre-emphasis, in the antinoise system called emphasis. De-emphasis is a system process designed to decrease, (within a band of frequencies), the magnitude of some (usually higher) frequencies with respect to the magnitude of other (usually lower) frequencies in order to improve the overall signal-to-noise ratio by minimizing the adverse effects of such phenomena as attenuation distortion or saturation of recording media in subsequent parts of the system.
Specialtime constants dictate thefrequency response curve, from which one can calculate thecutoff frequency.
Although rarely used, there exists the capability for standardized emphasis inRed Book CD mastering. As CD players were originally implemented with affordable 14-bit converters, a specification for pre-emphasis was included to compensate forquantization noise. After economies of scale eventually allowed full 16 bits, quantization noise became less of a concern, but emphasis remained an option. The pre-emphasis is described as a first-order filter with a gain of 10 dB (at 20 dB/decade) and time constants 50 μs and 15 μs.[1]
Inserial data transmission, emphasis is used to improvesignal quality at the output of acommunication channel. In transmitting signals at high data rates, the transmission medium may introduce distortions, so emphasis is used to distort the transmitted signal to correct for this distortion. When done properly this produces a received signal that more closely resembles the original or desired signal, allowing the use of higher data rates or producing fewer bit errors. Most real world channels have loss that increases with frequency[2]: 6 (effectively a low pass filter), so emphasis needs to invert this effect (functioning as a high pass filter).[2]: 8 This makes emphasis a form ofequalization, implemented at the transmit side of the channel.
Emphasis can be implemented either by boosting high frequencies (pre-emphasis, increasing the amplitude of transition bits) or attenuating low frequencies (de-emphasis, reducing the amplitude of non-transition bits). Both have the same net effect of producing a flatter system frequency response; de-emphasis is typically more convenient to do in real circuits since it only requires attenuation rather than amplification.[2]: 9 Well-known serial data standards such asPCI Express,SATA andSAS require transmitted signals to use de-emphasis.
As a lossy channel becomes longer, high-frequency attenuation worsens and the signal will be increasingly distorted.
In the demonstration below, a 5 Gbps PRBS-9 test pattern is sent through PCB traces of various lengths on standard FR-4 material.
| 55 mm | 300 mm | |
|---|---|---|
 |  |
At some point, depending on the specifics of the channel, the transmitter, and the receiver, the signal will become too distorted for the receiver to correctly interpret it and the link will experience a high error rate or completely fail. Emphasis is one way to undo this distortion and enable communication to be successful over such a channel.
De-emphasis can be implemented by means of an analog high-pass filter circuit in parallel with an attenuator. This weakens the entire signal by a fixed amount, then allows extra energy to bypass the attenuator when the signal changes. The end result is a sharp spike at each transition followed by an exponential decay to the steady-state amplitude.
In the demonstration below, a 5 Gbps PRBS-9 test pattern is sent through a 300mm FR-4 channel with increasing levels of de-emphasis. Note that as the emphasis is increased, the signal amplitude is reduced.
| 0 dB | 6 dB | 12 dB | |
|---|---|---|---|
|  |  |
Unlike the FIR architecture discussed in the next section, with analog emphasis the shape of the overshoot is *independent* of the signal bit rate. Thus, at lower data rates the entire bit's amplitude is not increased, only the edge. In the example below, a deliberately excessive level of emphasis is used to make the overshoot more visible.
| 1.25 Gbps | 5 Gbps | |
|---|---|---|
 | |
One common implementation of emphasis in real SERDES[3] is a 3-tap feed-forward equalizer (FFE): rather than driving the output pin with the desired output voltage directly, the actual output voltage is a weighted sum of the desired bit value (main cursor), the previous bit (post cursor), and the next bit to be transmitted (pre cursor).[2]: 10,24 The main cursor coefficient controls the nominal amplitude of the bit and is always positive (as a negative coefficient would invert the bit value). The pre cursor coefficient removesISI at the receiver caused by bits which have not yet arrived (e.g. fields coupling across meanders in a delay-matched trace) and is typically zero or a very small negative value, as this is often not a major contribution to total ISI. The post cursor coefficient removes ISI at the receiver caused by the immediately preceding bit and is typically a larger negative value,[2]: 16 with lossier channels requiring a larger tap value.[4] Higher numbers of taps are possible but increase circuit complexity and tend to result in diminishing returns[2]: 14 so are not commonly used.
The effects of emphasis on a signal can be clearly seen in theeye pattern. In the following demonstration, we consider a 10.3125 GbpsPRBS-31 test pattern withNRZ modulation, typical for testing10-Gigabit Ethernet. The channel has aninsertion loss of roughly 2 dB at the fundamental, 3 dB at the 2nd harmonic, and 4 dB at the 3rd. The goal is to achieve a well-equalized channel response in which the eye is maximally open without excessiveovershoot. Excessive equalization can worsenjitter, increase overshoot, and result in a less open eye than a properly equalized signal.[5]
| Baseline | Excessive pre cursor | Optimized | Excessive post cursor | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
 |  |  |  | |
| Width | Worst | Better | Best | Better |
| Height | Good | Bad | Best | Bad |
| Jitter | Worst | Better | Best | Better |
This article incorporatespublic domain material fromFederal Standard 1037C.General Services Administration. Archived fromthe original on 2022-01-22. (in support ofMIL-STD-188).