Pre-dreadnought battleships were sea-goingbattleships built from the mid- to late- 1880s to the early1900s. Their designs were conceived before the appearance ofHMS Dreadnought in 1906 and their classification as "pre-dreadnought" is retrospectively applied. In their day, they were simply known as "battleships" or else more rank-specific terms such as "first-class battleship" and so forth.[1] The pre-dreadnought battleships were the pre-eminent warships of their time and replaced theironclad battleships of the 1870s and 1880s.
In contrast to the multifarious development of ironclads in preceding decades, the 1890s saw navies worldwide start to build battleships to a common design as dozens of ships essentially followed the design of theRoyal Navy'sMajestic class.[2] Built from steel, protected bycompound, nickel steel orcase-hardened steel armor, pre-dreadnought battleships were driven bycoal-fired boilers poweringcompound reciprocating steam engines which turned underwaterscrews. These ships distinctively carried amain battery of very heavy guns upon the weather deck, in large rotating mounts eitherfully orpartially armored over, and supported by one or moresecondary batteries of lighter weapons on broadside.
The similarity in appearance of battleships in the 1890s was underlined by the increasing number of ships being built. New naval powers such asGermany,Japan, theUnited States, and to a lesser extentItaly andAustria-Hungary, began to establish themselves with fleets of pre-dreadnoughts. Meanwhile, the battleship fleets of the United Kingdom,France, andRussia expanded to meet these new threats. The last decisive clash of pre-dreadnought fleets was between theImperial Japanese Navy and theImperial Russian Navy at theBattle of Tsushima on 27 May 1905.[3]
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These battleships were abruptly made obsolete by the arrival of HMSDreadnought in 1906.Dreadnought followed the trend in battleship design to heavier, longer-ranged guns by adopting an "all-big-gun" armament scheme of ten12-inch guns. Her innovativesteam turbine engines also made her faster.[4] The existing battleships were decisively outclassed, with no more being designed to their format thereafter; the new, larger and more powerful, battleships built from then on were known asdreadnoughts. This was the point at which the ships that had beenlaid down before were re-designated "pre-dreadnoughts".
The pre-dreadnought developed from theironclad battleship. The first ironclads—the FrenchGloire andHMS Warrior—looked much likesailing frigates, with three tall masts andbroadside batteries, when they were commissioned in the early 1860s.HMVSCerberus, the firstbreastwork monitor, was launched in 1868, followed in 1871 byHMS Devastation, a turreted ironclad which more resembled a pre-dreadnought than the previous, and its contemporary, turretless ironclads. Both ships dispensed with masts and carried four heavy guns in two turrets fore and aft.Devastation was the first ocean-going breastwork monitor; although her very lowfreeboard, meant that her decks were subject to being swept by water and spray, interfering with the working of her guns.[5] Navies worldwide continued to build masted, turretless battleships which had sufficient freeboard and were seaworthy enough to fight on the high seas.
The distinction between the coast-assault battleship and the cruising battleship became blurred with theAdmiral-class ironclads, ordered in 1880. These ships reflected developments in ironclad design, being protected by iron-and-steelcompound armor rather thanwrought iron. Equipped withbreech-loading guns of between 12-inch and 16 ¼-inch (305-mm and 413-mm) caliber, the Admirals continued the trend of ironclad warships mounting gigantic weapons. The guns were mounted in openbarbettes to save weight. Some historians see these ships as a vital step towards pre-dreadnoughts; others view them as a confused and unsuccessful design.[6]
The subsequentRoyal Sovereign class of 1889 retained barbettes but were uniformly armed with13.5-inch (343 mm) guns; they were also significantly larger (at 14,000 tonsdisplacement) and faster (because of triple-expansion steam engines) than the Admirals. Just as importantly, theRoyal Sovereigns had a higher freeboard, making them unequivocally capable of performing the high-seas battleship role.[7]
The pre-dreadnought design reached maturity in 1895 with theMajestic class.[8] These ships were built and armored entirely of steel, and their guns were now mounted in fully-enclosed rotating turrets. They also adopted12-inch (305 mm) main guns, which, because of advances in gun construction and the use ofcordite propellant, were lighter and more powerful than the previous guns of larger caliber. TheMajestics provided the model for battleship construction in the Royal Navy and many other navies for years to come.[9]
Pre-dreadnoughts carried guns of several different calibers, for different roles in ship-to-ship combat.
Very few pre-dreadnoughts deviated from what became the classic arrangement of heavy weaponry: Amain battery of four heavy guns mounted in two center-line gunhouses fore and aft (these could be either fully enclosed barbettes or true turrets but, regardless of type, were later to be universally referred to as 'turrets'). These main guns were slow-firing, and initially of limited accuracy; but they were the only guns heavy enough to penetrate the thick armor which protected the engines, magazines, and main guns of enemy battleships.[10]
The most common caliber for this main armament was 12-inch (305 mm), although earlier ships often had larger-caliber weapons of lower muzzle velocity (guns in the 13-inch to 14-inch range) and some designs used smaller guns because they could attain higher rates of fire. All British first-class battleships from theMajestic class onwards carried 12-inch weapons, as did French battleships from theCharlemagne class, laid down in 1894. Japan, importing most of its guns from Britain, used this caliber also. The United States used both 12-inch and 13-inch (330 mm) guns for most of the 1890s until theMaine class, laid down in 1899 (not the earlierMaine ofSpanish–American War notoriety), after which the 12-inch gun was universal. The Russians used both 12 and 10-inch (254 mm) guns as their main armament; thePetropavlovsk class,Retvizan,Tsesarevich, andBorodino class had 12-inch (305 mm) main batteries while thePeresvet class mounted 10-inch guns. The first German pre-dreadnought class used an 11-inch (279 mm) gun but decreased to a 9.4-inch (239 mm) gun for the two following classes and returned to 11-inch guns with theBraunschweig class.[11]
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While the caliber of the main battery remained generally constant, the performance of the guns improved as longer barrels were introduced. The introduction of slow-burningnitrocellulose and cordite propellant allowed the employment of a longer barrel, and therefore highermuzzle velocity—giving greater range and penetrating power for the samecaliber of shell.[12] Between theMajestic class andDreadnought, the length of the British 12-inch gun increased from 35calibers to 45 and muzzle velocity increased from 706 metres (2,317 ft) per second to 770 metres (2,525 ft) per second.[13]
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Pre-dreadnoughts also carried asecondary battery of smaller guns, typically 6-inch (152 mm), though calibers from 4 to 9.4 inches (100 to 240 mm) were used. Virtually all secondary guns were "quick firing", employing a number of innovations to increase the rate of fire. The propellant was provided in a brass cartridge, and both the breech mechanism and the mounting were suitable for rapid aiming and reloading.[14] A principal role of the secondary battery was to damage the less armored parts of an enemy battleship; while unable to penetrate the main armor belt, it might score hits on lightly armored areas like the bridge, or start fires.[15] Equally important, the secondary armament was to be used against smaller enemy vessels such ascruisers,destroyers, and eventorpedo boats. A medium-caliber gun could be expected to penetrate the light armor of smaller ships, while the rate of fire of the secondary battery was important in scoring a hit against a small, maneuvrable target. Secondary guns were mounted in a variety of ways; sometimes carried in turrets, they were just as often positioned in fixed armored casemates in the side of the hull, or in unarmored positions on upper decks.
Some of the pre-dreadnoughts carried an "intermediate" battery, typically of 8-to-10-inch (203 to 254 mm) caliber. The intermediate battery was a method of packing more heavy firepower into the same battleship, principally of use against battleships or at long ranges. The United States Navy pioneered the intermediate battery concept in theIndiana,Iowa, andKearsarge classes, but not in the battleships laid down between 1897 and 1901.[16] Shortly after the USN re-adopted the intermediate battery, the British, Italian, Russian, French, and Japanese navies laid down intermediate-battery ships. Almost all of this later generation of intermediate-battery ships finished building afterDreadnought, and hence were obsolescent before completion.[17]
The pre-dreadnought's armament was completed by a tertiary battery of light, rapid-fire guns, of any caliber from 3 inches (76 mm) down tomachine guns. Their role was to give short-range protection against torpedo boats, or to attack the deck and superstructure of a battleship.[15]
In addition to their gun armament, many pre-dreadnought battleships were armed withtorpedoes, fired from fixed tubes located either just above or below the waterline. By the pre-dreadnought era the torpedo was typically 18-inch (457 mm) in diameter and had an effective range of several thousand meters. However, it was virtually unknown for a battleship to score a hit with a torpedo.[18]
During the ironclad age, the range of engagements increased; in theSino-Japanese War of 1894–95 battles were fought at distances of around 1 mile (1.6 km); while in theBattle of the Yellow Sea in 1904, the Russian and Japanese fleets had opened fire at over 8 miles (13 km),[19] before settling down to fight at ranges of 3.5 miles (5.6 km).[20] The increase in engagement range was due in part to the longer range of torpedoes, and in part to improved gunnery and fire control. In consequence, shipbuilders tended towards heavier secondary armament, of the same caliber that the "intermediate" battery had been; the Royal Navy's last pre-dreadnought class, theLord Nelson class, carried ten9.2-inch guns as secondary armament. Ships with a uniform, heavy secondary battery are often referred to as "semi-dreadnoughts".[17]
Pre-dreadnought battleships carried a considerable weight of steel armor, providing them with effective defense against the great majority of naval guns in service during the period. 'Medium' caliber guns up to 8-9.4 inch would generally prove incapable of piercing their thickest armor, while it still provided some measure of defense against even the 'heavy' guns of the day which were considered capable of piercing these plates.
Experience with the first generations of ironclads showed that rather than giving the ship's entire length uniform armor protection, it was best to concentrate armor in greater thickness over limited but critical areas. Therefore the central section of the hull, which housed the boilers and engines, was protected by the main belt, which ran from just below the waterline to some distance above it. This "central citadel" was intended to protect the engines from even the most powerful shells. Yet the emergence of the quick-firing gun and high explosives in the 1880s meant that the 1870s to early 1880s concept of the pure central citadel was also inadequate in the 1890s and that thinner armor extensions towards the extremities would greatly aid the ship's defensive qualities. Thus, the main belt armor would normally taper to a lesser thickness along the side of the hull towards bow and stern; it might also taper up from the central citadel towards the superstructure.
The main armament and the magazines were protected by projections of thick armor from the main belt. The beginning of the pre-dreadnought era was marked by a move from mounting the main armament in open barbettes to an all-enclosed, turret mounting.[8]
The deck was typically lightly armored with 2 to 4 inches (5.1 to 10.2 cm) of steel.[21] This lighter armor was to prevent high-explosive shells from wrecking the superstructure of the ship.
The majority of battleships during this period of construction were fitted with a heavily-armored conning tower, or CT, which was intended for the use of the command staff during battle. This was protected by a vertical, full height, ring of armor nearly equivalent in thickness to the main battery gunhouses and provided with observation slits. A narrow armored tube extended down below this to the citadel; this contained & protected the various voice-tubes used for communication from the CT to various key stations during battle.
The battleships of the late 1880s, for instance theRoyal Sovereign class, were armored with iron and steel compound armor. This was soon replaced with more effective case-hardened steel armor made using theHarvey process developed in the United States. First tested in 1891, Harvey armor was commonplace in ships laid down from 1893 to 1895.[8] However, its reign was brief; in 1895, the GermanKaiser Friedrich III pioneered the superiorKrupp armor. Europe adopted Krupp plate within five years, and only the United States persisted in using Harvey steel into the 20th century. The improving quality of armor plate meant that new ships could have better protection from a thinner and lighter armor belt; 12 inches (300 mm) of compound armor provided the same protection as just 7.5 inches (190 mm) of Harvey armor or 5.75 inches (146 mm) of Krupp armor.[22]
Almost all pre-dreadnoughts were powered by reciprocatingsteam engines. Most were capable of top speeds between 16 to 18 knots (18 to 21 mph; 30 to 33 km/h).[23] The ironclads of the 1880s usedcompound engines, and by the end of the 1880s the even-more efficienttriple expansion compound engine was in use. Some fleets, though not the British, adopted the quadruple-expansion steam engine.[24]
The main improvement in engine performance during the pre-dreadnought period came from the adoption of increasingly higher pressure steam from the boiler.Scotch marine boilers were superseded by more compactwater-tube boilers, allowing higher-pressure steam to be produced with less fuel consumption. Water-tube boilers were also safer, with less risk of explosion, and more flexible than fire-tube types. TheBelleville-type water-tube boiler had been introduced in the French fleet as early as 1879, but it took until 1894 for the Royal Navy to adopt it for armored cruisers and pre-dreadnoughts; other water-tube boilers followed in navies worldwide.[25]
The engines drove either two or threescrew propellers. France and Germany preferred the three-screw approach, which allowed the engines to be shorter and hence more easily protected; they were also more maneuverable and had better resistance to accidental damage. Triple screws were, however, generally larger and heavier than the twin-screw arrangements preferred by most other navies.[24]
Coal was the almost exclusive fuel for the pre-dreadnought period, though navies made the first experiments with oil propulsion in the late 1890s.[26] An extra knot or two of speed could be gained for short bursts by applying a 'forced draught' to the furnaces, where air was pumped into the furnaces, but this risked damage to the boilers if used for prolonged periods.
The French built the only class ofturbine powered pre-dreadnought battleships, theDanton class of 1907.
The pre-dreadnought battleship in its heyday was the core of a very diverse navy. Many older ironclads were still in service. Battleships served alongside cruisers of many descriptions: modernarmored cruisers which were essentially cut-down battleships, lighterprotected cruisers, and even older unarmored cruisers, sloops and frigates whether built out of steel, iron or wood. The battleships were threatened by torpedo boats; it was during the pre-dreadnought era that the first destroyers were constructed to deal with the torpedo-boat threat, though at the same time the first effectivesubmarines were being constructed.[27]
The pre-dreadnought age saw the beginning of the end of the 19th century naval balance of power in which France and Russia vied for competition against the massiveRoyal Navy, and saw the start of the rise of the "new naval powers" of Germany, Japan and the United States. The new ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy and to a lesser extent theU.S. Navy supported those powers' colonial expansion.
While pre-dreadnoughts were adopted worldwide, there were no clashes between pre-dreadnought battleships until the very end of their period of dominance. The First Sino-Japanese War in 1894–95 influenced pre-dreadnought development, but this had been a clash between Chinese battleships and a Japanese fleet consisting of mostly cruisers.[28][29] The Spanish–American War of 1898 was also a mismatch, with the American pre-dreadnought fleet engagingSpanish shore batteries at San Juan and then a Spanish squadron of armored cruisers and destroyers at theBattle of Santiago de Cuba. Not until theRusso-Japanese War of 1904–05 did pre-dreadnoughts engage on an equal footing. This happened in three battles: the Russian tactical victory during theBattle of Port Arthur on 8–9 February 1904,[30] the indecisiveBattle of the Yellow Sea on 10 August 1904, and the decisive Japanese victory at theBattle of Tsushima on 27 May 1905. These battles upended prevailing theories of how naval battles would be fought, as the fleets began firing at one another at much greater distances than before; naval architects realized thatplunging fire (explosive shells falling on their targets largely from above, instead of from a trajectory close to horizontal) was a much greater threat than had been thought.
Gunboat diplomacy was typically conducted by cruisers or smaller warships. A British squadron of three protected cruisers and two gunboats brought about thecapitulation of Zanzibar in 1896; and while battleships participated in the combined fleet Western powers deployed during theBoxer Rebellion, the naval part of the action was performed by gunboats, destroyers and sloops.[31]
European navies remained dominant in the pre-dreadnought era. The Royal Navy remained the world's largest fleet, though both Britain's traditional naval rivals and the new European powers increasingly asserted themselves against its supremacy.
In 1889, Britain formally adopted a "two-power standard" committing it to building enough battleships to exceed the two largest other navies combined; at the time, this meant France and Russia, which became formally allied in the early 1890s.[32] TheRoyal Sovereign andMajestic classes were followed by a regular program of construction at a much quicker pace than in previous years. TheCanopus,Formidable,Duncan andKing Edward VII classes appeared in rapid succession from 1897 to 1905.[33] Counting two ships ordered by Chile but taken over by the British, the Royal Navy had 50 pre-dreadnought battleships ready or being built by 1904, from the1889 Naval Defence Act's ten units onwards. Over a dozen older battleships remained in service. The last two British pre-dreadnoughts, the "semi-dreadnought"Lord Nelsons, appeared afterDreadnought herself.
France, Britain's traditional naval rival, had paused its battleship building during the 1880s because of the influence of theJeune École (Young School) doctrine, which favored torpedo boats over battleships. After the Jeune École's influence faded, the first French battleship laid down wasBrennus, in 1889.Brennus and the ships which followed her were individual, as opposed to the large classes of British ships; they also carried an idiosyncratic arrangement of heavy guns, withBrennus carrying three 13.4-inch (340 mm) guns and the ships which followed carrying two 12-inch and two 10.8-inch guns in single turrets. TheCharlemagne class, laid down 1894–1896, were the first to adopt the standard four 12-inch (305 mm) gun heavy armament.[34] The Jeune École retained a strong influence on French naval strategy, and by the end of the 19th century France had abandoned competition with Britain in battleship numbers.[35] The French suffered the most from the dreadnought revolution, with four ships of theLiberté class still building whenDreadnought launched, and a further six of theDanton class begun afterwards.
Germany's first pre-dreadnoughts, theBrandenburg class, were laid down in 1890. By 1905, a further 19 battleships were built or under construction, thanks to the sharp increase in naval expenditure justified by the1898 and 1900 Navy Laws.[36] This increase was due to the determination of the navy chiefAlfred von Tirpitz and the growing sense of national rivalry with the UK. Besides theBrandenburg class, German pre-dreadnoughts include the ships of theKaiser Friedrich III,Wittelsbach, andBraunschweig classes—culminating in theDeutschland class, which served in both world wars. On the whole, the German ships were less powerful than their British equivalents but equally robust.[37]
Russia equally entered into a program of naval expansion in the 1890s; one of Russia's main objectives was to maintain its interests against Japanese expansion in the Far East. ThePetropavlovsk class begun in 1892 took after the BritishRoyal Sovereigns; later ships showed more French influence on their designs, such as theBorodino class. The weakness of Russian shipbuilding meant that many ships were built overseas for Russia; the best ship, theRetvizan, being largely constructed in the United States.[38] The Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05 was a disaster for the Russian pre-dreadnoughts; of the 15 battleships completed sincePetropavlovsk, eleven were sunk or captured during the war. One of these, the famousPotemkin, mutinied and was briefly taken over byRomania at the end of the mutiny. However, she was soon recovered and recommissioned asPanteleimon. After the war, Russia completed four more pre-dreadnoughts after 1905.
Between 1893 and 1904, Italy laid down eight battleships; the later two classes of ship were remarkably fast, though theRegina Margherita class was poorly protected and theRegina Elena class lightly armed. In some ways, these ships presaged the concept of thebattlecruiser.[39] The Austro-Hungarian Empire also saw a naval renaissance during the 1890s, though of the nine pre-dreadnought battleships ordered only the three of theHabsburg class arrived beforeDreadnought made them obsolete.
The United States started building its first battleships in 1891. These ships were short-range coast-defense battleships that were similar to the BritishHMS Hood except for an innovative intermediate battery of 8-inch guns. The US Navy continued to build ships that were relatively short-range and poor in heavy seas, until theVirginia class laid down in 1901–02.[16] Nevertheless, it was these earlier ships that ensured American naval dominance against the antiquated Spanish fleet—which included no pre-dreadnoughts—in the Spanish–American War, most notably at the Battle of Santiago de Cuba. The final two classes of American pre-dreadnoughts (theConnecticuts andMississippis) were completed after the completion of theDreadnought and after the start of design work on the USN's own initial class of dreadnoughts. The USGreat White Fleet of 16 pre-dreadnought battleships circumnavigated the world from 16 December 1907, to 22 February 1909.[40]
Japan was involved in two of the three major naval wars of the pre-dreadnought era. The first Japanese pre-dreadnought battleships, theFuji class, were still being built at the outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95,[41] which saw Japanese armored cruisers and protected cruisers defeat the ChineseBeiyang Fleet, composed of a mixture of old ironclad battleships and cruisers, at theBattle of the Yalu River. Following their victory, and facing Russian pressure in the region, the Japanese placed orders for four more pre-dreadnoughts; along with the twoFujis these battleships formed the core of the fleet which twice engaged the numerically superior Russian fleets at the Battle of the Yellow Sea and the Battle of Tsushima. After capturing eight Russian battleships of various ages, Japan built several more classes of pre-dreadnoughts after the Russo-Japanese War.
In 1906 the commissioning ofHMS Dreadnought brought about the obsolescence of all existing battleships.Dreadnought, by scrapping the secondary battery, was able to carry ten 12-inch (305 mm) guns rather than four. She could fire eight heavy guns broadside, as opposed to four from a pre-dreadnought; and six guns ahead, as opposed to two.[42] The move to an "all-big-gun" design was a logical conclusion of the increasingly long engagement ranges and heavier secondary batteries of the last pre-dreadnoughts; Japan and the United States had designed ships with a similar armament beforeDreadnought, but were unable to complete them before the British ship.[43][44] It was felt that because of the longer distances at which battles could be fought, only the largest guns were effective in battle, and by mounting more 12-inch gunsDreadnought was two to three times more effective in combat than an existing battleship.[45]
The armament of the new breed of ships was not their only crucial advantage.Dreadnought used steam turbines for propulsion, giving her a top speed of 21 knots (24 mph; 39 km/h), against the 18 knots (21 mph; 33 km/h) typical of the pre-dreadnought battleships. Able both to outgun and outmaneuver their opponents, thedreadnought battleships decisively outclassed earlier battleship designs.[4]
Nevertheless, pre-dreadnoughts continued in active service and saw significant combat use even when obsolete. Dreadnoughts and battlecruisers were believed vital for the decisive naval battles which at the time all nations expected, hence they were jealously guarded against the risk of damage by mines or submarine attack, and kept close to home as much as possible. The obsolescence and consequent expendability of the pre-dreadnoughts meant that they could be deployed into more dangerous situations and more far-flung areas.[46]
During World War I a large number of pre-dreadnoughts remained in service. The advances in machinery and armament meant that a pre-dreadnought was not necessarily the equal of even a modern armored cruiser, and was totally outclassed by a modern dreadnought battleship or battlecruiser. Nevertheless, the pre-dreadnought played a major role in the war.
This was first illustrated in the skirmishes between British and German navies around South America in 1914. While two German cruisers menaced British shipping, the Admiralty insisted that no battlecruisers could be spared from the main fleet and sent to the other side of the world to deal with them. Instead the British dispatched a pre-dreadnought of 1896 vintage,HMS Canopus. Intended to stiffen the British cruisers in the area, in fact her slow speed meant that she was left behind at the disastrousBattle of Coronel.Canopus redeemed herself at theBattle of the Falkland Islands, but only when grounded to act as a harbor-defense vessel; she fired at extreme range (13,500 yards, 12,300 m) on the German cruiserSMS Gneisenau, and while the only hit was from an inert practice shell which had been left loaded from the previous night (the "live" shells of the salvo broke up on contact with water; one inert shell ricocheted into one ofGneisenau's funnels), this certainly deterredGneisenau. The subsequent battle was decided by the twoInvincible-class battlecruisers which had been dispatched after Coronel.[47]
In the Black Sea five Russian pre-dreadnoughts saw brief action against the Ottoman battlecruiserYavuz Sultan Selim during theBattle of Cape Sarych in November 1914.[48] Two of the Russian pre-dreadnoughts briefly engagedYavuz Sultan Selim again in May 1915.[49]
The principle that disposable pre-dreadnoughts could be used where no modern ship could be risked was affirmed by British, French and German navies in subsidiary theatres of war. The German navy used its pre-dreadnoughts frequently in the Baltic campaign. However, the largest number of pre-dreadnoughts was engaged at theGallipoli campaign. Twelve British and French pre-dreadnoughts formed the bulk of the force which attempted to "force the Dardanelles" in March 1915. The role of the pre-dreadnoughts was to support the brand-new dreadnoughtHMS Queen Elizabeth engaging the Turkish shore defences. Three of the pre-dreadnoughts were sunk by mines, and several more badly damaged. However, it was not the damage to the pre-dreadnoughts which led to the operation being called off. The two battlecruisers were also damaged; sinceQueen Elizabeth could not be risked in the minefield, and the pre-dreadnoughts would be unable to deal with the Turkish battlecruiser lurking on the other side of the straits, the operation had failed.[50] Pre-dreadnoughts were also used to support the Gallipoli landings, with the loss of three more:HMS Goliath,HMS Triumph andHMS Majestic.[51] In return, a pair of Ottoman pre-dreadnoughts, the ex-GermanTurgut Reis andBarbaros Hayreddin, bombarded Allied forces during theGallipoli campaign until the latter was torpedoed and sunk by a British submarine in 1915.[52]
A squadron of German pre-dreadnoughts was present at theBattle of Jutland in 1916; German sailors called them the "five-minute ships", which was the amount of time they were expected to survive in a pitched battle.[53] In spite of their limitations, the pre-dreadnought squadron played a useful role. As the German fleet disengaged from the battle, the pre-dreadnoughts risked themselves by turning on the British battlefleet as dark set.[54] Nevertheless, only one of the pre-dreadnoughts was sunk:SMS Pommern went down in the confused night action as the battlefleets disengaged.[55]
Following the November 1918 Armistice, the U.S. Navy converted fifteen older battleships, eight armored cruisers and two larger protected cruisers for temporary service as transports. These ships made one to six trans-Atlantic round-trips each, bringing home a total of more than 145,000 passengers.[56]
After World War I, most battleships, dreadnought and pre-dreadnought alike, were disarmed under the terms of theWashington Naval Treaty.[57] Largely this meant the ships being broken up for scrap; others were destroyed in target practice or relegated to training and supply duties. One,Mikasa, was given a special exemption to the Washington Treaty and was maintained as amuseum and memorial ship.
Germany, which lost most of its fleet under the terms of theVersailles treaty, was allowed to keep eight pre-dreadnoughts (of which only six could be in active service at any one time) which were counted as armored coast-defense ships;[58] two of these were still in use at the beginning of World War II. One of these,Schleswig-Holstein, shelled the PolishWesterplatte peninsula, opening the German invasion of Poland and firing the first shots of the Second World War.[59]Schleswig-Holstein served for most of the war as a training ship; she was sunk by air attack while under refit in December 1944. After the war, the Soviets raised the wreck and beached it for use as a stationary target in theGulf of Finland.[60] The other,Schlesien, was mined and then scuttled in May 1945. She was partially scrapped between 1949 and 1970, but some sections remain.[61]
A number of the inactive or disarmed pre-dreadnoughts were nevertheless sunk in action during World War II, such as the Greek pre-dreadnoughtsKilkis andLemnos, bought from the U.S. Navy in 1914. While neither of the ships was in active service, they were both sunk by German dive bombers after the German invasion in 1941. In the Pacific, the U.S. Navy submarineUSS Salmon sank the disarmed Japanese pre-dreadnoughtAsahi in May 1942. A veteran of the Battle of Tsushima, she was serving as a repair ship.[62]
No pre-dreadnoughts served post–World War II as armed ships, though a number lingered on in secondary roles for a decade or more. The last serving pre-dreadnought was the formerSMS Hessen, which was used as a target ship by the Soviet Union into the early 1960s as theTsel. The hull of the formerUSS Kearsarge served as acrane ship from 1920 until its scrapping in 1955. Thehulk of the ex-USS Oregon was used as an ammunitionbarge at Guam until 1948, after which she was scrapped in 1956.[63] The Turkish battleshipTurgut Reis remained in use as abarracks ship until 1950.[64]
There is only one pre-dreadnought preserved today: theImperial Japanese Navy's flagship at the Battle of Tsushima,Mikasa, which is now located inYokosuka, where she has been a museum ship since 1925.[65]
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