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Pre-Islamic Arab trade refers to the land- and sea-trade networks used bypre-Islamic Arab nations andtraders. Some regions are also known as theincense trade route. Trade has been documented as early as the beginning of thesecond millennium BCE.
A text from the era ofSargon of Akkad (r. c. 2334-2284 BCE) mentions a shipping industry inMagan, in present-dayOman.[1] Excavations in the cities ofUr andKish and inBahrain and other locations along the east coast of theArabian Peninsula have unearthed goods of Indian origin (including seals). Both indicate that the network of maritime trade was regular, bustling, and well known as early as 3000 BC. They suggest that Bahrain and other sites along thePersian Gulf were popular docks which would welcome ships arriving fromIraq on their way to and fromIndia.[2][full citation needed]
According to the 2nd-century BCE Greek historianAgatharchides, "It does not appear that there exists a people richer thanthe Sabaeans and the people ofGerrha who were agents of everything which fell under the name ofshipping between Asia and Europe. They made Ptolemaic Syria rich and madePhoenician trade profitable in addition to hundreds of other things."[3] He described them as fierce warriors and skilled seafarers, who sailed large ships to supply their colonies.[4] ThePalmyrene Empire built a shipyard inCharacene, which facilitated the transport of goods through theEuphrates ports ofDura-Europos andSura (the present-day village of Al-Hamam, east of theal-Thawra Dam inSyria). Some of the Palmyrenes who owned and sailed ships on thePersian Gulf and theIndian Ocean were attested by Chinese sailors who visited the region in 97 CE and mentioned theCharacene port ofCharax Spasinu.[5] Characene surpassedGerrha in theperfume trade.[6] Despite the lack of direct control by theNabataean Kingdom in the Persian Gulf, it was reachable by land (where goods would be loaded onto ships). Nabataean writings and manufactured goods (including typical Nabataean white dyes) have been discovered in the village ofThaj near the Persian Gulf, along the eastern coast of theArabian Peninsula nearBahrain and as far as the ports ofYemen andOman. They have also been found in archeological sites along the Incense Route, such asQaryat al-Faw. Nabataean pottery has been uncovered in India; Nabataean inscriptions are scattered throughout the Mediterranean region, fromTunisia toRhodes,Kos,Delos,Miletus in theAegean Sea and inPozzuoli andRome.[7] Late Antique to medieval trade amphorae contained different food stuffs including wine and olive oil, perhaps the best known are so-called Aqaba/Ayla vessels from theRed Sea toSouth Asia.[8]
TheSabaeans had a long history ofseafaring andcommerce. A Sabaean presence inAfrica was noted in antiquity with the founding of the kingdom ofDʿmt inEthiopia in the 8th century BCE. The 1st-century CE historianPeriplus of the Erythraean Sea described how the Arabs controlled the coast of "Ezana" (theEast African coast north ofSomalia). TheQuran mentions trade withSheba: "And We placed between them and the cities which We had blessed [many] visible cities. And We determined between them the [distances of] journey, [saying], "Travel between them by night or day in safety."[9] TheOld TestamentBook of Ezekiel reads, "Dedan traded in saddle blankets with you. Arabia and all the princes of Kedar were your customers; they did business with you in lambs, rams and goats. ‘The merchants of Sheba and Raamah traded with you; for yourmerchandise they exchanged the finest of all kinds of spices and precious stones, and gold."[10] The Chinese explorerFaxian, who passed throughSri Lanka in 414 CE, reported that Saebaean merchants and Arabs from Oman andHadhramaut lived in ornate homes in settlements on the island[clarification needed] and traded in timber.[11] TheLakhmids also traded with Chinese ships which sailed along the Euphrates past the village ofal-Hirah.[12] In the northern Lakhmid kingdom (present-dayAl Anbar Governorate flows the 'Isā River, which connects theTigris and the Euphrates.[13] To reach the Persian Gulf from al-Hirah, the Lakhmids traveled in smaller boats to the port inal-Ubulla (where there were sea ships bound for India and China). They would then depart for China via Bahrain andAden.[14]
| Name | Location | Operation | Description | Clientele |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dumat al-Jandal | Nearal-Jawf (northern Arabian Peninsula) | 1-15Rabi' al-awwal | Commercial and amenity market, with trade by tossing stones | Iraq, Syria and the Arabian Peninsula |
| Hajar | Bahrain | Rabi' al-Thani | Dates,dry goods,ambergris,musk | Traders from neighboring provinces |
| Al-Mushaqqar | Bahrain | Jumada al-awwal | General market in which sales were made with gestures and nonverbal utterances, the roads to which were not safe | Arabs and foreigners, particularly Persians |
| Oman | Yemeni seacoast | Jumada al-Thani (and from the 15th to the end ofRamadan) | Ambergris,metals,fruits | Varied, including Arabs from the tribe ofAzd |
| Hubasha | Bareq,Tihamah | EarlyRajab | Secondary market shared by Yemen, Tihamah and theHejaz, which operated until 812 CE | Varied |
| Sohar | Oman coast | Rajab | Commercial market, protected during the holy month[clarification needed] | Varied |
| Dibba | Arabian Gulf | End of Rajab to the 10th ofSha'ban | Mixed market, in which Arab products were sold bybargaining | India,Sindh, China, Arabs |
| Al-Shahrah or Shahar Mahrah | Southern coast, between Aden and Oman | 15th of Sha'ban | Camels,ambergris,dairy products,cloth,rope andhides. Goods sold with stone-balancedscales. | Merchants |
| Aden | South of theBab-el-Mandeb | From 1–10 Ramadan | Perfume,collyrium,pearls; safe access | Arabs, Persians and Romans |
| San'a | Yemeni capital | 15–30 Ramadan | Cotton,saffron,dyes, Galia Moschata[clarification needed] and collyrium, sold by touching hands | Arab, Ethiopian and Persian merchants |
| Hadhramaut | Between Oman and Yemen | 15–30Dhu al-Qidah | Limited size | Varied |
| Okaz | The lands of the tribe ofHawazin, in theHejaz nearTa'if | 1–20 Dhu al-Qidah | The best-known Arab market, which contributed to the standardisation of Arabic dialects | Varied throughout the Arabian Peninsula |
| Majannah | The lands of the tribe ofBanu Kinanah inTihamah, nearMecca | 20–30 Dhu al-Qidah | Smaller than Okaz, protected by its position and during the holy months[clarification needed] | Similar to Okaz, plus Arabs and pilgrims onHajj andUmrah |
| Dhu Majaz | NearMount Arafat | 1–8Dhu al-Hijjah | General market, inhabited until Youm al-Tarwiyah[clarification needed] | Arab merchants and pilgrims |
| Natat Khaybar | North ofMedina | After the pilgrimage season | Commercial market | Jewish clientele |
| Hajr al-Yamama | current Riyadh Saudi Arabia | 10–30Muharram | General market protected during the holy months | Arabs |
| Dayr Ayyub | North of Bosra (he Levant) | After the pilgrimage season | Roman-controlled commercial market | Meeting place for Arab and Roman merchants |
| Bosra market | Southern Levant (Hauran) | After the pilgrimage season, 30-40 nights usually between Muharram and Rabi' al-Awwal | Commercial market including Indian and Ethiopian products, noted for swords and wines | Arab merchants |
| Adhra'at (Daraa) | Hauran | After the pilgrimage season and the Bosra market | Noted for wine | Arab merchants |
| Al-Hirah Market | North of Kufa | Unknown | Noted for hides, perfume, collyrium, jewelry, horses and goods from other Arab markets and those of neighboring countries. Safety provided by the Lakhmid kings. | Arabs and Persians |
| Al-Mirbad | Outskirts of Basra | Perennial | Similar to Okaz: a general, commercial, residential and literary centre until theAbbasid era | Arab traders, poets and intellectuals |
The Qur'an mentions the winter and summer journeys which the tribe ofQuraysh would make, since Mecca was on the Incense Road.Hashim ibn Abd Manaf, the great-grandfather ofMuhammad, was a distinguished merchant whose trading post was inGaza (where he died and was buried). He founded the "'īlāf," (solidarity), a series of commercial agreements between him, the tribe of Quraysh and the other factions with whom they traded. His tomb is in theSayed al-Hashim Mosque.
Islamic sources also mention Muhammad's mercantile career in the Levant, beginning with a trip to the region with his uncleAbu Talib. InBosra, theNestorian priestBahira foretold Muhammad's life. He later employedKhadija bint Khuwaylid, the woman who became his wife. According to Christian sources from 660 and 692 CE,[15] "Mohammad would go to [the] lands of Palestine, Arabia, Syria, and Phoenicia to trade."[16] Bosra has the Mosque of the Blessing of the Camel (which was blessed by Muhammad's camel in the caravan of his uncle, Abu Talib) and the Monastery of Bahira. Bosra is a Nabatean city, which became the capital after Petra. After the fall of the Nabatean Kingdom, the Romans made Bosra the capital of the province of Arabia. A fourth-century Byzantine source notes the concentration of Arab commerce in Bosra.[17]
The south Arabian navigation history were suggested by Gus van Beek that they are developed through their constant contacts with advanced maritime civilization.[18] According to biblical historiographical research by Charles Henry Stanley Davis, a semitic maritime civilization namedPhoenicia which dated from 1100 and 200 BC has long time planted colonies of merchants inYemen.[19] The prosperity of Gerrhan caused the Yemen and the Phoenician in the opening of Indian route commerce.[20] The Phoenician colonies in Yemen has shipped merchant vessels came from India unloaded their cargoes in Yemen coasts and carried them across the Arabian desert to their hometown inLevant.[19] The Phoenician merchants also settled in Persian gulf in their effort of transporting commodities from India to their hometown.[21] Thus the trade activities between the local Yemenites and the Phoenician has formed a prosper ancient Arab kingdom,Gerrha.[20] The commodities which brought by the Phoenician from Yemen and Persian gulf were transported with Arabian caravan crossing the desert towards Levant.[21]
Arab naval trade was contested by the Greeks, who tried to challenge Arab control of maritime trade between India and Egypt during the earlyMiddle Ages. Arab trade persisted during the period, and Greek naval trade dwindled.[22] There were a number of harbors on the Arabian Peninsula, some of which remain in operation. The most important harbors in the eastern Arabian Peninsula were Al-Ubulla,Gerrha andSohar (Oman). The most important southern harbors wereMocha, Qanī (nowBi'r `Ali, Yemen),Aden, and Muska (Samharam).[23] The most important western ports included al-Sha'ibah, Aylah (Aqaba) and Luwikat Kuma (al-Hawra'). A sea route used by Arabs to reach the Indian subcontinent ran from "The Euphrates of Maysan" toDebal on theIndus River.[24] They would also sail from al-Ubulla, passing Oman and on to India.[25] Those who traveled from the harbors of Yemen, such as the Qanī and "Muza" of Gerrha, would sail directly to India without needing to stop and resupply.[26]
The Arabs land trade, which spanned from their hometown in south of Yemen has touched the trades inSilk Road andIndian Ocean trade particularly in which the modern historians coined in "Frankincense and myrrh" theory, which spread by them through camel caravans.[27][28]
Land trade extended as far as theCaucasus Mountains.[citation needed] The road began in the city of Qanī in Hadhramaut, and branched into two paths 160 miles (260 km) apart.[citation needed] The first path led east, along WadīMayfa'a toShabwa; the second led from Qanī to Wadī Hajar and passed through Wadī Armah, the water source for Shabwa. From Shabwa, the road turned towards Aden and led to Najran.[29] The road continued northeast from Najdan toWadī Al-Dawasir, passing the villages ofal-Faw and al-Aflaj (where it branched in two directions). The first led east to the Persian Gulf, and the other led north to the Levant.[30]
Bowen 1958: 35-42; Groom 1981: 165-188.