Prayagraj lies close toTriveni Sangam, the "three-river confluence" of theGanges,Yamuna, and the mythicalSarasvati.[1] It plays a central role inHindu scriptures. The city finds its earliest reference as one of the world's oldest known cities in Hindu texts and has been venerated as the holy city ofPrayāga in the ancientVedas. Prayagraj was also known asKosambi in the lateVedic period, named by theKuru rulers ofHastinapur, who developed it as their capital. Known as Purimtal in ancient Jain scriptures, it is also a sacred place forJains, as their firstTirthankar,Rishabhdeva attainedkevalya gyana here.[16] This was one of the greatest cities in India from the late Vedic period until the end of theMaurya Empire,[citation needed] with occupation continuing until theGupta Empire. Since then, the city has been a political, cultural and administrative centre of theDoab region.
Prayagraj is an internationaltourism destination, second in terms of tourist arrivals in the state after Varanasi.[25] Located in southern Uttar Pradesh, the city covers 365 km2 (141 sq mi).[4] Although the city and its surrounding area are governed by several municipalities, a large portion of Prayagraj district is governed by the Prayagraj Municipal Corporation. The city is home to colleges, research institutions and manycentral andstate government offices, including High court of Uttar Pradesh. Prayagraj has hosted cultural and sporting events, including thePrayag Kumbh Mela and theIndira Marathon. Although the city's economy was built on tourism, most of its income now derives from real estate and financial services.[26]
Etymology
The location at the confluence of Ganges andYamuna rivers has been known in ancient times as Prayāga, which means "place of a sacrifice" in Sanskrit (pra-, "fore-" +yāj-, "to sacrifice").[27] It was believed that godBrahma performed the very first sacrifice (yāga,yajna) in this place.[28][29]
The wordprayāga has been traditionally used to mean "a confluence of rivers". For Allahabad, it denoted the physical meeting point of the rivers Ganges and Yamuna in the city. An ancient tradition has it that a third river, invisible Sarasvati, also meets there with the two. Today, Triveni Sangam (or simply Sangam) is a more frequently used name for the confluence.
Prayagraj (Sanskrit:Prayāgarāja), meaning "the king among the fiveprayāgas", is used as a term of respect to indicate that this confluence is the most splendid one of thefive sacred confluences in India.[30]
TheMughal emperorAkbar visited the region in 1575 and was so impressed by the strategic location of the site that he ordered a fort be constructed.[31] The fort was constructed by 1584 and calledIlahabas or "Abode of God", later changed toAllahabad underShah Jahan. Speculations regarding its name, however, exist. Because of the surrounding people calling itAlhabas, has led to some people[who?] holding the view that it was named afterAlha fromAlha's story.[32]James Forbes' account of the early 1800s claims that it was renamed Allahabad or "Abode of God" byJahangir after he failed to destroy theAkshayavat tree. The name, however, predates him, withIlahabas andIlahabad mentioned on coins minted in the city since Akbar's rule, the latter name became predominant after the emperor's death. It has also been thought to not have been named afterAllah butilaha (the gods). Shaligram Shrivastav claimed inPrayag Pradip that the name was deliberately given by Akbar to be construed as both Hindu ("ilaha") and Muslim ("Allah").[18]
Over the years, a number of attempts were made by theBJP-led governments of Uttar Pradesh to rename Allahabad to Prayagraj. In 1992, the planned rename was shelved when the chief minister,Kalyan Singh, was forced to resign following theBabri Masjid demolition. The government ofRajnath Singh also unsuccessfully attempted to change the name in 2001.[33] The rename finally succeeded in October 2018 when theYogi Adityanath-led government officially changed the name of the city to Prayagraj.[34][35]
Prayāga is mentioned in theAgni Purana and otherPuranas with various legends, including being one of the places whereBrahma attended ayajna (homa), and the confluence of river Ganges, Yamuna and mythical Saraswati site as the king of pilgrimage sites (Tirtha Raj).[40] Other early accounts of the significance of Prayag to Hinduism is found in the various versions of thePrayaga Mahatmya, dated to the late 1st-millennium CE. ThesePurana-genre Sanskrit texts describe Prayag as a place "bustling with pilgrims, priests, vendors, beggars, guides" and local citizens busy along the confluence of the rivers (sangam).[41][42] Prayaga is also mentioned in the Hindu epicRamayana, a place with the legendaryAshram of sageBharadwaj.[43]
Purimtal Jain Tirth, located in Prayagraj (formerly known asPurimtal), is a site of religious and historical significance forJains. This ancient pilgrim site is revered as the spot whereRishabhadeva, the firstTirthankara, achievedkeval gyan as per Jain beliefs.[44] As documented inVividha Tirtha Kalpa by Acharya Jinaprabhasuri,Purimtal once featured numerous Jain temples. Rishabhadeva is said to have attained omniscience under theAkshayavat tree. This tree, often referred to as the "indestructible" tree in legends, is a point of spiritual reverence in other religions as well. The site also holds importance inHindu and Buddhist traditions. Originally, sandalwood footprints of Rishabhadeva were placed beneath the tree, which were later replaced with stone replicas following theft.[45]
A small shrine, built to protect the ancient footprints andŚvetāmbaraJain idol of Rishabhadeva at the base of theAkshayavata tree
In the 15th century,Akbar constructed a fort enclosing theAkshayavat tree. During British rule, public access to the fort was restricted, and the shrine was relocated to the Patalpuri Śvetāmbara Jain Temple on the fort's outskirts. While the Patalpuri Śvetāmbara Jain Temple houses a tree worshiped as theAkshayvat, many believe the original Akshayvat is in an underground temple within the fort. Maps from theBritish Library confirm this, showing the original temple's location at the fort's center.[47]
Purimtal is home to five Jain temples, including fourDigambara and oneŚvetāmbara temple. The Śvetāmbara Jain temple features a marble idol of Rishabhadeva, dating back to the 11th century CE. Alongside the idol, the temple enshrines images of otherTirthankaras, such asVimalnatha,Parshvanatha,Mahavira, andShantinatha. Footprints of Jain monks are also installed here. TheAllahabad Museum further highlights the region's Jain heritage, displaying ancient idols and artefacts excavated from nearby areas.[47]
Purimtal is associated with numerous milestones inJain history, including:
The composition of the firstDvādaśāṅgī scriptures byGanadhara Pundarika, a disciple of Rishabhadeva.[45][46]
TheAkshayvat tree remains a key attraction. Ongoing efforts to preserve and documentPurimtal'sJain heritage ensure its enduring relevance to the community and the broader historical narrative.[47]
Archaeology and inscriptions
TheAshoka pillar at Prayagraj contains many inscriptions since the 3rd century BCE. Sometime about 1575 CE,Birbal of Akbar's era added an inscription that mentions the "Magh mela at Prayag Tirth Raj".[3][48]
Inscription evidence from the famed Ashoka edicts containingAllahabad Pillar – also referred to as the Prayaga Bull pillar – adds to the confusion about the antiquity of this city.[49][50] Excavations have revealedNorthern Black Polished Ware dating to 600–700 BCE.[40] According toDilip Kumar Chakrabarti, "... there is nothing to suggest that modern Prayag (i e. modern Allahabad) was an ancient city. Yet it is inconceivable that one of the holiest places of Hinduism, Prayag or the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna should be without a major ancient city." Chakrabarti suggests that the city ofJhusi, opposite the confluence, must have been the "ancient settlement of Prayag".[51] Archaeological surveys since the 1950s has revealed the presence of human settlements near thesangam sincec. 800 BCE.[49][50]
Along with Ashoka's Brahmi script inscription from the 3rd century BCE, the pillar has a Samudragupta inscription, as well as a Magha Mela inscription ofBirbal of Akbar's era. It states,
In the Samvat year 1632, Saka 1493, in Magha, the 5th of the waning moon, on Monday, Gangadas's son MaharajaBirbal made the auspicious pilgrimage to Tirth Raj Prayag. Saphal scripsit. – Translated by Alexander Cunningham (1879)[52]
These dates correspond to about 1575 CE, and confirm the importance and the name Prayag.[52][53] According to Cunningham, this pillar was brought to Allahabad fromKaushambi by a Muslim Sultan, and that in some later century before Akbar, the old city of Prayag had been deserted.[54] Other scholars, such as Krishnaswamy and Ghosh disagree.[53] In a paper published in 1935, they state that the pillar was always at its current location based on the inscription dates on the pillar, lack of textual evidence for the move in records left by Muslim historians and the difficulty in moving the massive pillar.[55] Further, like Cunningham, they noted that many smaller inscriptions were added on the pillar over time. Quite many of these inscriptions include a date between 1319 CE and 1575 CE, and most of these refer to the month Magha. According to Krishnaswamy and Ghosh, these dates are likely related to theMagh Mela pilgrimage at Prayag, as recommended in the ancient Hindu texts.[56]
In papers published about 1979, John Irwin – a scholar of Indian Art History and Archaeology, concurred with Krishnaswamy and Ghosh that the Allahabad pillar was never moved and was always at the confluence of the rivers Ganges and Yamuna.[49][50] According to Irwin, an analysis of the minor inscriptions and ancient scribblings on the pillar first observed by Cunningham, also noted by Krishnaswamy and Ghosh, reveals that these included years and months, and the latter "always turns out to be Magha, which also gives it name to theMagh Mela", the Prayaga bathing pilgrimage festival of the Hindus.[50] He further stated that the pillar origins were undoubtedly pre-Ashokan based on the new evidence from the archaeological and geological surveys of the triveni site (Prayaga), the major and minor inscriptions as well as textual evidence, taken together.[49][50] Archaeological and geological surveys done since the 1950s, states Irwin, have revealed that the rivers – particularly Ganges – had a different course in distant past than now. The original path of river Ganges at the Prayaga confluence had settlements dating from the 8th century BCE onwards.[50] According toKarel Werner – an Indologist known for his studies on religion particularly Buddhism, the Irwin papers "showed conclusively that the pillar did not originate at Kaushambi", but had been at Prayaga from pre-Buddhist times.[57]
Gupta Empire
Homeland
Evolution of Gupta territory, with neighbouring polities.
In some recent academic studies, theGuptas are traced to have originated from the Prayaga region, where they first established power.[58]Goyal suggests that theAllahabad Pillar Inscription strongly indicates that the early Gupta center of power was in the moderneastern Uttar Pradesh, probably around Prayaga.[59]
TheVishnu Purana provides an intriguing reference: "Anu-Ganga Prayāgam Māgadha Guptās-cha bhokshyanti," which has been translated byMajumdar as "The territory along theGanges (up to) Prayaga will be enjoyed by the people ofMagadha and the Guptas."[60] This excerpt suggests that the Guptas were distinguished from the people of Magadha, yet both jointly ruled the region along the Ganges up to Prayaga.[58]
Indian woman floating lamps on the Ganges by William Simpson.
Historically, theGupta Empire emerged from the unification of the Gupta andLicchavis states, which aligns with this Purana's reference. The text seems to imply that the Licchavis of Nepal were identified with the Magadhas, and their joint domain included Magadha and the territory stretching westward to Prayag.[61]
The Allahabad Pillar as seen by the missionary Joseph Tiefenthaler in the 18th century.
In this context, the capital of the Gupta empire likely started around Magadha and Prayag and expanded from there. The concentration of early Gupta inscriptions and gold coinages around Prayag (especially ofSamudragupta's famous prasasti) tends to suggest that this region was the residence of greatest power of the Guptas. They probably controlledSarnath in the east,[62] and as their stronghold, they used Prayag. For the initial phase of the empire, the exact boundaries in the region above and the west is vague, but they most definitely controlled easternUttar Pradesh. By the late third and early fourth centuries, this area had burgeoned into a dynasty aiming to build a great empire.[63]
Various scholarships considers Prayaga as the initial Gupta capital and supports this arguments with ThePuranic references, and multiple earlyGupta era inscriptions alongside the discovery of numerous coin hoards scattered around the region, further suggesting that the Guptas strengthened their sovereignty over the area prior to further expansion.[59]
This statement was also supported byR.S. Sharma who claimed that it is highly likely the Guptas based themselves inUttar Pradesh because from there they could expand anywhere. With Prayag as their center, they extended their rule over Anuganga (mid-Gangetic basin), Prayag (modern Prayagraj),Saketa (modernAyodhya), and Magadha.[58]
Early medieval period
The 7th-century Buddhist Chinese travellerXuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) in Fascicle V ofDà Táng Xīyù Jì (Great Tang Records on the Western Regions) explicitly mentions Prayaga as both a country and a "great city" where the Yamuna river meets Ganges river. He states that the great city has hundreds of "deva temples" and to the south of the city are two Buddhist institutions (a stupa built by Ashoka and a monastery). His 644 CE memoir also mentions the Hindu bathing rituals at the junction of the rivers, where people fast near it and then bathe believing that this washes away their sins. Wealthy people and kings come to this "great city" to give away alms at the Grand Place of Almsgiving. According to Xuanzang's travelogue, the confluence is to the east of this "great city" and the site where alms are distributed every day.[64][65] Kama MacLean – an Indologist who has published articles on the Kumbh Mela predominantly based on the colonial archives and English-language media,[66] states based on emails from other scholars and a more recent interpretation of the 7th-century Xuanzang memoir, that Prayag was also an important site in 7th-century India of a Buddhist festival. She states that Xuanzang festivities at Prayag featured a Buddha statue and involved alms giving, consistent with Buddhist practices.[67] According to Li Rongxi – a scholar credited with a recent and complete translation of a critical version of theDà Táng Xīyù Jì, Xuanzang mentions that the site of the alms-giving is adeva temple, and the alms-giving practice is recommended by the "records at this temple". Rongxi adds that the population of Prayaga was predominantly heretics (non-Buddhists, Hindus), and affirms that Prayaga attracted festivities ofdeva-worshipping heretics and also the orthodox Buddhists.[64]
Xuanzang also describes a ritual-suicide practice at Prayaga, then concludes it is absurd. He mentions a tree with "evil spirits" that stands before anotherdeva temple. People commit suicide by jumping from it in the belief that they will go to heaven.[64] According to Ariel Glucklich – a scholar of Hinduism and Anthropology of Religion, the Xuanzang memoir mentions both the superstitious devotional suicide and narrates a story of how a Brahmin of a more ancient era tried to put an end to this practice.[65]Alexander Cunningham believed the tree described by Xuanzang was theAkshayavat tree. It still existed at the time ofAl-Biruni who calls it as "Prayaga", located at the confluence of Ganga and Yamuna.[68]
The historic literature of Hinduism and Buddhism before the Mughal emperorAkbar use the term Prayag, and never use the term Allahabad or its variants. Its history before theMughal EmperorAkbar is unclear.[69] In contrast to the account of Xuanzang, the Muslim historians place the tree at the confluence of the rivers. The historian Dr. D. B. Dubey states that it appears that between this period, the sandy plain was washed away by the Ganges, to an extent that the temple and tree seen by the Chinese traveller too was washed away, with the river later changing its course to the east and the confluence shifting to the place where Akbar laid the foundations of his fort.[70]
Henry Miers Elliot believed that a town existed before Allahabad was founded. He adds that afterMahmud of Ghazni captured Asní nearFatehpur, he couldn't have crossed intoBundelkhand without visiting Allahabad had there been a city worth plundering. He further adds that its capture should have been heard whenMuhammad of Ghor captured Benares. However, Ghori's historians never noticed it.Akbarnama mentions that theMughal emperor Akbar founded a great city in Allahabad.'Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni andNizamuddin Ahmad mention that Akbar laid the foundations of an Imperial City there which he calledIlahabas.[17]
Abul Fazal in hisAin-i-Akbari states, "For a long time his (Akbar's) desire was to found a great city in the town of Piyag (Allahabad) where the rivers Ganges and Jamuna join... On 13th November 1583 (1stAzar 991 H.) he (Akbar) reached the wished spot and laid the foundations of the city and planned four forts." Abul Fazal adds, "Ilahabad anciently called Prayag was distinguished by His Imperial Majesty [Akbar] by the former name".[71] The role of Akbar in founding the Ilahabad – later called Allahabad – fort and city is mentioned byʽAbd al-Qadir Badayuni as well.[72]
Nizamuddin Ahmad gives two different dates for Allahabad's foundation, in different sections ofTabaqat-i-Akbari. He states that Akbar laid the foundation of the city at a place of the confluence of Ganges and Jumna which was a very sacred site of Hindus, then gives 1574 and 1584 as the year of its founding, and that it was named "Ilahabas".[72] The next generation of Mughal rulers started calling it Illahabad, and finally, the British started calling it "Allahabad" for ease of pronunciation.[73]
Akbar was impressed by its strategic location for a fort.[32] According to William Pinch, Akbar's motive may have been twofold. One, the armed fort secured the control of fertile Doab region. Second, it greatly increased his visibility and power to the non-Muslims who gathered here for pilgrimage from distant places and who constituted the majority of his subjects.[74] Later, he declared Ilahabas as a capital of one of the twelve divisions (subahs).[75] According to Richard Burn, the suffix "–bas" was deemed to "savouring too much of Hinduism" and therefore the name was changed toIlahabad byShah Jahan.[71] This evolved into the two variant colonial-era spellings of Ilahabad (Hindi: इलाहाबाद) and Allahabad.[71][76] According to Maclean, these variant spellings have a political basis, as "Ilaha–" means "the gods" for Hindus, while Allah is the term for God to Muslims.[76]
AfterPrince Salim's coup against Akbar and a failed attempt to seize Agra's treasury, he came to Allahabad and seized its treasury while setting himself up as a virtually independent ruler.[77] In May 1602, he had his name read inFriday prayers and his name minted on coins in Allahabad. After reconciliation with Akbar, Salim returned to Allahabad, where he stayed before returning in 1604.[78] After capturing Jaunpur in 1624,Prince Khurram ordered the siege of Allahabad. The siege was however, lifted afterParviz andMahabat Khan came to assist the garrison.[79] During the Mughal war of succession, the commandant of the fort who had joinedShah Shuja made an agreement withAurangzeb's officers and surrendered it to Khan Dauran on 12 January 1659.[80]
Nawabs of Awadh
The fort was coveted by theEast India Company for the same reasons Akbar built it. British troops were first stationed at Allahabad fort in 1765 as part of theTreaty of Allahabad signed by LordRobert Clive, Mughal emperorShah Alam II, andAwadh's NawabShuja-ud-Daula.[81] The combined forces of Bengal's NawabMir Qasim, Shuja and Shah Alam were defeated by the English atBuxar in October 1764 and atKora in May 1765. Alam, who was abandoned by Shuja after the defeats, surrendered to the English and was lodged at the fort, as they captured Allahabad,Benares andChunar in his name. The territories of Allahabad and Kora were given to the emperor after the treaty was signed in 1765.
Shah Alam spent six years in the Allahabad fort and after thetakeover ofDelhi by the Marathas, left for his capital in 1771 under their protection.[82] He was escorted byMahadaji Shinde and left Allahabad in May 1771 and in January 1772 reached Delhi. Upon realising the Maratha intent of territorial encroachment, however, Shah Alam ordered his generalNajaf Khan to drive them out.Tukoji Rao Holkar andVisaji Krushna Biniwale in return attacked Delhi and defeated his forces in 1772. The Marathas were granted an imperialsanad for Kora and Allahabad. They turned their attention to Oudh to gain these two territories. Shuja was however, unwilling to give them up and made appeals to the English and the Marathas did not fare well at the Battle of Ramghat.[83] In August and September 1773,Warren Hastings met Shuja and concluded a treaty, under which Kora and Allahabad were ceded to the Nawab for a payment of 50 lakh rupees.[84]
Saadat Ali Khan II, after being made the Nawab byJohn Shore, entered into a treaty with the company and gave the fort to the British in 1798.[85]Lord Wellesley after threatening to annexe the entire Awadh, concluded a treaty with Saadat on abolishing the independent Awadhi army, imposing a larger subsidiary force and annexingRohilkhand,Gorakhpur and the Doab in 1801.[86]
Acquired in 1801, Allahabad, aside from its importance as a pilgrimage centre, was a stepping stone to the agrarian track upcountry and theGrand Trunk Road. It also potentially offered sizeable revenues to the company. Initialrevenue settlements began in 1803.[87] Allahabad was a participant in the 1857Indian Mutiny,[88] whenMaulvi Liaquat Ali unfurled the banner of revolt.[89] During the rebellion, Allahabad, with a number of European troops,[90] was the scene of a massacre.[19]
After the mutiny, the British established a high court, a police headquarters and a public-service commission in Allahabad,[91] making the city an administrative centre.[92] They truncated the Delhi region of the state, merging it withPunjab and moving the capital of theNorth-Western Provinces to Allahabad (where it remained for 20 years).[23] In January 1858,Earl Canning departedCalcutta for Allahabad.[93] That year he readQueen Victoria's proclamation, transferring control of India from theEast India Company to theBritish Crown (beginning theBritish Raj), inMinto Park.[94][95] In 1877 the provinces of Agra and Awadh were merged to form theUnited Provinces,[96] with Allahabad its capital until 1920.[23]
The Triveni Sangam (place where three rivers meet) is the meeting place of Ganges, the Yamuna and mythical Saraswati River, which according to Hindu legends, wells up from underground.[110][111] A place of religious importance and the site for historic Prayag Kumbh Mela held every 12 years, over the years it has also been the site of immersion of ashes of several national leaders, includingMahatma Gandhi in 1948.[110]
The mainghat in Prayagraj isSaraswati Ghat, on the banks of Yamuna. Stairs from three sides descend to the green water of the Yamuna. Above it is a park which is always covered with green grass. There are also facilities for boating here. There are also routes to reach Triveni Sangam by boat from here.[112][113] Apart from this, there are more than 100 raw ghats in Prayagraj.
Prayagraj is in the southern part of Uttar Pradesh, at the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna.[114][115] The region was known in antiquity first as the Kuru, then as the Vats country.[116] To the southwest isBundelkhand, to the east and southeast isBaghelkhand, to the north and northeast isAwadh and to the west is the lowerdoab (of which Prayagraj is part).[114] The city is divided by a railway line running east–west.[117] South of the railway is the Old Chowk area, and the British-builtCivil Lines is north of it. Prayagraj is well placed geographically and culturally.[118] Geographically part of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab (at the mouth of the Yamuna), culturally it is the terminus of the Indian west.[119]TheIndian Standard Time longitude (25.15°N 82.58°E) is near the city. According to aUnited Nations Development Programme report, Prayagraj is in a "low damage risk" wind and cyclone zone.[120] In common with the rest of thedoab, its soil and water are primarilyalluvial.[121]Pratapgarh is north of the city,Bhadohi is east,Rewa is south,Chitrakoot (earlier Banda) is west, andKaushambi, which was until recently a part of Allahabad (Prayagraj), is North-West.
Climate
Prayagraj has ahumid subtropical climate common to cities in the plains of North India, designatedCwa in theKöppen climate classification.[122] The annual mean temperature is 26.1 °C (79.0 °F); monthly mean temperatures are 18–29 °C (64–84 °F).[123] Prayagraj has three seasons: a hot, dry summer, a cool, dry winter and a hot, humid monsoon. Summer lasts from March to September with daily highs reaching up to 48 °C in the dry summer (from March to May) and up to 40 °C in the hot and extremely humid monsoon season (from June to September).[123] Themonsoon begins in June, and lasts until August; high humidity levels prevail well into September. Winter runs from December to February,[124] with temperatures rarely dropping to the freezing point. The daily average maximum temperature is about 22 °C (72 °F) and the minimum about 9 °C (48 °F).[125] Prayagraj never receives snow,[126] but, experiences dense winter fog due to numerous wood fires, coal fires, and open burning of rubbish—resulting in substantial traffic and travel delays.[124] Its highest recorded temperature is 48.9 °C (120.0 °F) on 9 June 2019, and its lowest is −0.7 °C (31 °F) on 26 December 1961.[123][127]
Rain from the Bay of Bengal or the Arabian Sea branches of thesouthwest monsoon[128] falls on Allahabad from June to September, supplying the city with most of its annual rainfall of 1,027 mm (40 in).[126] The highest monthly rainfall total, 333 mm (13 in), occurs in August.[129] The city receives 2,961 hours of sunshine per year, with maximumsunlight in May.[127]
Climate data for Prayagraj (1991–2020, extremes 1901–present)
Source 2:NOAA (sun 1971–1990),[133] Tokyo Climate Center (mean temperatures 1991–2020)[134]
Allahabad has been ranked 20th best "National Clean Air City" (under Category 1 >10L Population cities) in India according to 'Swachh Vayu Survekshan 2024 Results'[135]
Biodiversity
A typicalIndian peacock, found in Prayagraj on a large scale
The Ganga-Jamuna Doab, of which Prayagraj is a part, is on the westernIndus-Gangetic Plain region. The doab (including theTerai) is responsible for the city's unique flora and fauna.[136][137] Since the arrival of humans, nearly half of the city'svertebrates have become extinct. Others areendangered or have had their range severely reduced. Associated changes in habitat and the introduction ofreptiles,snakes and othermammals led to the extinction of bird species, including large birds such aseagles.[138] TheAllahabad Museum, one of four national museums in India, is documenting the flora and fauna of the Ganges and the Yamuna.[139]To protect the rich aquatic biodiversity of river Ganges from escalating anthropogenic pressures, development of aTurtle sanctuary in Prayagraj along with a River Biodiversity Park atSangam have been approved under Namami Gange programme.
The2011 census reported a population of 1,112,544 in the 82 km2 (32 sq mi) area governed by Prayagraj Municipal Corporation, corresponding to a density of 13,600/km2 (35,000/sq mi).[143][144] In January 2020, the boundaries of Prayagraj Municipal Corporation were expanded to 365 km2 (141 sq mi); according to the 2011 census, 1,536,218 people lived within those boundaries; this corresponds to a population density of 4,200/km2 (11,000/sq mi).[4]
Natives of Uttar Pradesh form the majority of Prayagraj's population. With regards to Houseless Census in Prayagraj, total 5,672 families live on footpaths or without any roof cover, this is approximately 0.38 per cent of the total population of Prayagraj district. The sex ratio of Prayagraj is 901 females per 1000 males and child sex ratio is 893 girls per 1000 boys, lower than the national average.[146]
Prayagraj'sliteracy rate at 86.50 per cent is the highest in the region.[147] Male literacy is 90.21 per cent and female literacy 82.17 per cent.[148] For 2001 census same figure stood at 75.81 and 46.38. As per census 2011, total 1,080,808 people are literate in Prayagraj of which males and females are 612,257 and 468,551 respectively. Among35 major Indian cities, Prayagraj reported the highest rate of violations of special and local laws to theNational Crime Records Bureau.[149]
Hindi, the official state language, is the dominant language in Prayagraj. Urdu and other languages are spoken by a sizeable minority. Hindus form the majority of Prayagraj's population; Muslims compose a large minority. According to provisional results of the 2011 national census,Hinduism is majority religion in Prayagraj city with 76.03 per cent followers.Islam is the second most practised religion in the city with approximately 21.94 per cent following it.Christianity is followed by 0.68 per cent,Jainism by 0.10 per cent,Sikhism by 0.28 per cent andBuddhism by 0.28 per cent. Around 0.02 per cent stated 'Other Religion', approximately 0.90 per cent stated 'No Particular Religion'.
Prayagraj district administration is headed by thedistrict magistrate and collector (DM) of Prayagraj, who is anIAS officer. The DM is in charge of property records and revenue collection for the central government and oversees theelections held in the district. The DM is also responsible for maintaining law and order in the district.[151][159][160][161] The DM is assisted by a chief development officer; five additional district magistrates for finance/revenue, city, rural administration, land acquisition and civil supply; one chief revenue officer; one city magistrate; and three additional city magistrates.[157][158] The district has eighttehsils viz. Sadar, Soraon, Phulpur, Handia, Karchhana, Bara, Meja and Kuraon, each headed by asub-divisional magistrate.[157]
The development of infrastructure in the city is overseen by the Prayagraj Development Authority (PDA), which comes under theDepartment of Housing and Urban Planning ofUttar Pradesh government. The divisional commissioner of Prayagraj acts as theex-officio chairperson of PDA, whereas a vice chairperson, a government-appointedIAS officer, looks after the daily matters of the authority.[163] The current chairperson of PDA is Bhanu Chandra Goswami.[164]
The Prayagraj Nagar Nigam, also calledPrayagraj Municipal Corporation, oversees the city's civic infrastructure. The corporation originated in 1864 as the Municipal Board of Allahabad, when the Lucknow Municipal Act was passed by theGovernment of India.[165][166] In 1867, theCivil Lines and the city were amalgamated for municipal purposes.[165][166] The Municipal Board became Municipal Corporation in 1959.[167] Allahabad Cantonment has a cantonment board. The city of Prayagraj is currently divided into 80 wards,[168] with one member (or corporator) elected from each ward to form the municipal committee. The head of the corporation is the mayor, but, the executive and administration of the corporation are the responsibility of the municipal commissioner, who is anUttar Pradesh government-appointedProvincial Civil Service officer of high seniority. The current mayor of Prayagraj isAbhilasha Gupta, whereas the current municipal commissioner is Avinash Singh.[169][170]
Prayagraj was declared to have metropolitan status in October 2006.[10] The metropolitan area is referred to in the2011 Indian census and other official documents as Allhabad Urban Agglomeration. It consists of Prayagraj Municipal Corporation, three census towns (the cantonment, Arail Uparhar, and Chak Babura Alimabad), and 17 Outer Growth (OG) areas listed in the table below.[143]
Allahabad cantonment
Allahabad has a cantonment, which was set up in 1857, as part of a chain of cantonments setup across north and central India to consolidate British rule.[171] At that time, it comprised covering a total area of 4464.6939 acres including civil area of 142.7129 acres.[172]
This was in line with Allahabad being made the centre of the newly -created North-west Provinces, that year, with Delhi transferred to the Punjab province and the truncated province being ruled from Allahabad for the next 20 years.[173] Allahabad cantonment came under the new Cantonments Act of 1924, and post-independence under the Cantonments Act of 2006.[171] The cantonment was counted as part of the city in censuses until the1931 Indian census, when it was started to be counted as a separatecensus town.
The4th Infantry Division, also known as theRed Eagle Division, is headquartered at Allahabad cantonment.[174]
Population of Allahabad Urban Agglomeration and its Parts According to Census Data for 1901–2011.[143]
Name
1901
1911
1921
1931
1941
1951
1961
1971
1981
1991
2001
2011
Prayagraj Urban Agglomeration
172,032
171,697
157,220
183,914
260,630
332,295
430,730
513,036
650,070
844,546
1,042,229
1,212,395
Prayagraj Municipal Corporation
172,032
171,697
157,220
173,895
246,226
312,259
411,955
490,622
616,051
792,858
975,393
1,112,544
Allahabad Cantonment (included in Allahabad in the 1901–1921 figures)
12,487
11,996
11,615
10,019
14,404
20,036
17,529
20,591
30,442
38,060
24,137
26,944
Arail Uparhar
12,190
Chak Babura Alimabad
4,876
Total of Allahabad Outer Growth (OG) areas listed below:
1,246
1,823
3,577
13,628
42,699
55,841
Subedarganj Railway Colony (OG)
1,246
1,823
3,577
3,606
872
1,568
Triveni Nagar (N.E.C.S.W.) (OG)
4,125
1,732
3,515
T.S.L. Factory (OG)
466
317
753
Mukta Vihar (OG)
461
509
534
Bharat Pump and Compressor Factory (OG)
631
628
648
A.D.A. Colony (OG)
1,155
12,539
22,774
Doorbani Nagar (OG)
2,312
783
543
ITI Factory and Res. Colony (OG)
872
3,764
221
Shiv Nagar (OG)
990
1,449
Gurunanak Nagar (OG)
867
947
Gandhi Nagar, Manas Nagar, Industrial Labour Colony (OG)
5,319
6,313
Gangotri Nagar (OG)
1,641
6,749
Mahewa West (OG)
7,161
2,136
Begum Bazar (OG)
514
841
Bhagal Purwa (OG)
680
988
Kodra (OG)
690
587
IOC Colony, Deoghat, ADA Colony and Jhalwagaon (OG)
Overall Prayagraj has a stable and diverse economy comprising various sectors such as State and Central government offices, education and research institutions, real estate, retail, banking, tourism and hospitality, agriculture-based industries, railways, transport and logistics, miscellaneous service sectors, and manufacturing.Average household income of the city is US$2,299.[177]
The construction sector is a major part of Prayagraj's economy.[178] Secondary manufacturers and services may be registered or unregistered;[179] according to the third All India Census for Small Scale Industries, there are more than 10,000 unregistered small-scale industries in the city.[180][181] An integrated industrial township has been proposed for 1,200 acres (490 ha) in Prayagraj by theDedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India.[182]
The primary economic sectors of the district are tourism, fishing and agriculture, and the city is a hub for India's agricultural industry.[189][190] In the case of agriculture crops, paddy has the largest share followed by bajra, arhar, urd and moong, in declining order during the Kharif season. In Rabi, wheat is predominant followed by pulses and oilseed. Among oilseed crops, mustard has very little area under pure farming and is grown mainly as a mixed crop. Linseed dominates the oilseed production of the district and is mainly grown in Jamunapar area. In the case of pulses, gram has the largest area followed by pea and lentil (masoor). There is fairly good acreage under barley.[191]
The world's firstairmail flight took place from Allahabad (Prayagraj) toNaini in February 1911, when 6,000 cards and letters where flown by French pilotHenri Pequet.[195]
Buses operated byUttar Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation and Prayagraj City Transport Service are an important means of public transport for travelling to various parts of the city, state and outskirts.[199] Auto Rickshaws have been a popular mode of transportation.[200]Cycle rickshaws are the most economical means of transportation in Prayagraj along withe-rickshaws.[200][201]
There are several important National Highways that pass through Prayagraj:[202]
The city generates 5,34,760 kg of domestic solid wastes daily, while the per capita generation of waste is 0.40 kg per day. The sewer service areas are divided into nine zones in the city.[26] Prayagraj Municipal Corporation oversees the solid waste management project.[208] Prayagraj was the first city to get pre-paid meters for electricity bill in Uttar Pradesh.[209][210] The city is equipped with over 40CCTVs at major crossings and markets.[211]
Department of Health and Family Welfare, Government of Uttar Pradesh oversees the healthcare system of Prayagraj. Its healthcare system comprises hospitals, medical facilities, private clinics and diagnostic centers. These facilities are either privately owned or owned and facilitated by the government. Prayagraj has a total of twenty four hospitals run by the administration.[212] Founded in memory of PanditMotilal Nehru in 1961,Motilal Nehru Medical College (MLN Medical College and associated hospitals) is a government medical college in Prayagraj, with Swaroop Rani Nehru Hospital,Kamla Nehru Memorial Hospital, Sarojini Naidu Children's Hospital and Manohar Das Eye Hospital serving under its affiliation.[213] Some of the known multispecialty hospitals in and around Prayagraj are Alka Hospital, Swaroop Rani Nehru Hospital,[214] Amardeep Hospital, Asha Hospital, Ashutosh Hospital and Trauma Centre, Bhola Hospital, Dwarka Hospital, D R S Hospital, Jain Hospital, Parvati Hospital Pvt. Ltd., Phoenix Hospitals Pvt. Ltd., Priya Hospital, Sangam Multispeciality Hospital, Vatsalya Hospital, Yashlok Hospital and Research Centre, etc.[215]
Prayagraj healthcare also comprises many medical research institutes. The city also has diagnostic labs, clinics, consultation providers and pathological institutes like Kriti Scanning Centre,[216] Prayag Scan & Diagnostic Centre, and Sprint Medical.[217][218]
Smart city project
IBM selected Prayagraj among 16 other global cities for its smart cities programme to help it address challenges like waste management, disaster management, water management and citizen services.[219][220] The company commenced working on solid waste management and power sector in generating renewable energy.[221]
As a part of Smart City Project, Civil Lines is being developed on the lines of Lucknow'sHazratganj. A sum of ₹20crore (US$3,024,000) has been sanctioned tobeautify all prominent crossings of the city. As per the plan, the administration proposed uniformity in signage and colour of buildings and a parking lot to be set up to solve traffic congestion.[229] A 1.35 km long riverfront along Yamuna river would be developed by the Prayagraj Development Authority, irrigation and power departments at a cost of ₹147.36 crore. The riverfront would be developed in two phases. In the first phase, around 650 metres at Arail would be developed along with the Yamuna, while in the second phase 700 metres of the stretch between New Yamuna Bridge and Boat Club in Kydganj would be taken up.[230]
Improving city libraries is part of the Smart City Mission. ₹6.6 crore is being spent improving and restoring Allahabad Government Public Library, which is in Chandra Shekhar Azad Park. The granite and sandstone building was founded in 1864 and was designed byRichard Roskell Bayne in theScottish baronial style. Chandra Mohan Garg, CEO of Prayagraj Smart City, said: "we are undertaking the restoration of the building, for which we have engaged conservation architects; and preservation of manuscripts dating back over 400 years, and digitisation of all library services".[231]
Plans were announced in 2024 to set up "digital smart classrooms" in 48 government-ran primary schools within the city limits.[232]
The Prayagraj educational system is distinct from Uttar Pradesh's other cities, with an emphasis on broad education.[233]Board of High School and Intermediate Education Uttar Pradesh, the world's biggest examining body, is headquartered in the city.[234][235] Although English is the language of instruction in most private schools, government schools and colleges offer Hindi andEnglish-medium education.[236] Schools in Prayagraj follow the10+2+3 plan. After completing their secondary education, students typically enrol in higher secondary schools affiliated with the Uttar Pradesh Board of High School and Intermediate Education, theICSE or theCBSE.[236] and focus on liberal arts, business or science. Vocational programs are also available.[237]
Although Hindu women have traditionally wornsaris, theshalwar kameez and Western attire are gaining acceptance among younger women.[242] Western dress is worn more by men, although thedhoti andkurta are seen during festivals. The formal malesherwani is often worn withchooridar on festive occasions.[242]Diwali,Holi, Kumbh Mela,Eid al-Fitr andVijayadasami are the most popular festivals in Prayagraj.[243]
Prayagraj has a literary and artistic heritage; the former capital of the United Provinces, it was known as Prayag in theVedas, theRamayana and theMahabharata.[244][245] Allahabad has been called the "literary capital of Uttar Pradesh",[246] attracting visitors from East Asia;[247] the Chinese travellersFaxian and Xuanzang found a flourishing city in the fifth and seventh centuries, respectively.[247][248] The number of foreign tourists, which mostly consisted ofAsians, visiting the city was 98,167 in 2010 which subsequently increased to 1,07,141 in 2014.[249] The city has a tradition of political graffiti which includeslimericks and caricatures.[98] In 1900,Saraswati, the firstHindi-language monthly magazine in India, was started byChintamani Ghosh.Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, the doyen of modern Hindi literature, remained its editors from 1903 to 1920.[250] TheAnand Bhavan, built during the 1930s as a new home for theNehru family when theSwaraj Bhavan became the localIndian National Congress headquarters, has memorabilia from the Gandhi-Nehru family.[251]
Prayagraj is noted for historic, cultural and religious tourism. Historic sites includeAlfred Park, theVictoria andThornhill Mayne Memorials,Minto Park, Allahabad Fort, the Ashoka Pillar andKhusro Bagh. Religious attractions include the Kumbh Mela, the Triveni Sangam and All Saints Cathedral. The city hosts theMaha Kumbh Mela, the largest religious gathering in the world, every twelve years and theArdh (half) Kumbh Mela every six years.[260][261] It also hosts aMagh Mela annually on the banks of the Triveni Sangam that typically lasts for one and a half months.[262][263] Cultural attractions include the Allahabad Museum, theJawahar Planetarium and the University of Allahabad.North Central Zone Cultural Centre, under theMinistry of Culture andPrayag Sangeet Samiti are nationally renowned centres of Arts, Dance, Music, local Folk Dance and Music, Plays/Theatre etc. and nurture upcoming artists. The city has also hosted the International Film Festival of Prayag.[264]
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