Praeses (Latinpl. praesides) is aLatin word meaning "placed before" or "at the head".[1] In antiquity, notably under theRoman Dominate, it was used to refer to Romangovernors; it continues to see some use for various modern positions.
Praeses began to be used as a generic description forprovincialgovernors—often through paraphrases, such asqui praeest ("he who presides")—already since the earlyPrincipate, but came in general use under theNerva–Antonine dynasty.[1] The juristAemilius Macer, who wrote at the time ofCaracalla (reigned 198–217), insists that the term was applied only to the governors who were alsosenators—thereby excluding theequestrianprocuratores—but, while this may reflect earlier usage, it was certainly no longer the case by the time he wrote.[1] In the usage of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, the term appears originally to have been used as an honorific, affixed to the formal gubernatorial titles (legatusAugusti etc.), and even, occasionally, forlegion commanders or fiscalprocuratores. By the mid-3rd century, however,praeses had become an official term, including for equestrian officials.[1] The form[procurator] vice praesidis had also come into common use for equestrianprocuratores entrusted with the governance of provinces in the absence of, or in lieu of, the regular (senatorial) governor. This marks a decisive step in the assumption of full provincial governorships by equestrians, with the first equestrianpraesides provinciae appearing in the 270s.[1]
This evolution was formalized in the reforms ofDiocletian (r. 284–305) andConstantine the Great (r. 306–337), when the termpraeses came to designate a specific class of provincial governors, the lowest after theconsulares and thecorrectores. In the East, however, they ranked between the two other classes, possibly because the fewcorrectores there were instituted after thepraesides.[1] The termpraeses remained in general use for provincial governors, and was still used in legal parlance to designate all classes of provincial governors collectively. In common usage, thepraesides were often also designated by more generic titles such asiudex ("judge"),rector ormoderator, and sometimes archaically aspraetor. InGreek, the term was rendered asἡγεμὼν (hegemon).[1]
Most of the provinces ("diocese") created by Diocletian by splitting the larger older ones were entrusted to suchpraesides, and they form the most numerous group of governors in the late-4th centuryNotitia Dignitatum:[1]
In the East, the staff (officium) of thepraeses (attested for Thebais) comprised the same as that of aconsularis, i.e. aprinceps officii,cornicularius,commentariensis,adiutor,numerarius,ab actis,a libellis,subadiuva; finally unspecifiedexceptores andcohortalini (menial staff).[1][4] In the West (attested for Dalmatia), theofficium was again the same as with theconsulares andcorrectores, comprising theprinceps officii,cornicularius, twotabularii,commentariensis,adiutor,ab actis,subadiuva, and the usualexceptores andcohortalini.[1][5]
The status of apraeses could also be awarded as a separate honour,ex praeside, attached to the rank ofvir perfectissimus.[1]
In German academia a doctoral advisor is called theDoktorvater. However, in the 18th century and before, the doctoral system was quite different. Instead of aDoktorvater as such, the candidate had apraeses to act as mentor and who would also head the oralviva voce exam. In the 18th century thepraeses often chose the subject and compiled the theses and the candidate had only to defend. Sometimes there were several candidates at the same time defending the same thesis, in order to save time.
Thechair of astudent society in theNetherlands orBelgium may be called a praeses; inDutch the official spelling has changed to "preses" but most student societies still observe the Latin spelling. Various minor offices may be designated by a compound title, e.g.dooppraeses in charge ofinitiation and associatedhazing.
In modernItalian the word "preside" is still used to indicate the head of primary or secondary school, generally equivalent to the Americanprincipal or the Britishheadmaster positions.
InNorway, the office ofarchbishop has been abolished. Instead, the LutheranChurch of Norway has aBishops Conference which is presided over by apraeses.
InSweden, thechair of academic institutions and disputations, as well as the bishop ofCathedral chapters, is calledpreses.
Thechurch bodiesEvangelical Church in the Rhineland andEvangelical Church of Westphalia, in which the title and function of bishop are unknown, are also chaired by apraeses (German:Präses, plural: Präsides).
In other German church bodies the title usually refers to the president of thesynod.
Roman Catholic religious institutions, especiallyFranciscan ones, use the term to indicate the presiding officer of a collegial meeting of the order.
The officialScots title of thePresiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament isPreses o the Scots Pairlament.[citation needed]
ThePolish wordprezes, derived from Latinpraeses meanschairman.