    Traditional potteries from top left to right: 1. Traditional Gurugal pottery from Sri Lanka. 2. Longpi black pottery from Manipur, India. 3. Khavda pottery from Gujarat, India. 4. Glazed Jaipur Blue pottery from Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. |
Pottery in the Indian subcontinent has an ancient history and is one of the most tangible and iconic elements ofIndian art. Evidence ofpottery has been found in the early settlements ofLahuradewa and later theIndus Valley Civilisation. Today, it is a cultural art that is still practiced extensively inthe subcontinent. Until recent times all Indian pottery has beenearthenware, includingterracotta.
Early glazed ceramics were used for making beads, seals, bangles during Neolithic period but these glazes were very rarely used on pottery.[1] Hindu traditions historically discouraged the use of pottery for eating off, while largematki jars for the storage of water or other things form the largest part of traditional Indian pottery, as well as objects such as lamps. Small simplekulhar cups, and also oil lamps, that aredisposable after a single use remain common. Today, pottery thrives as an art form in India. Various platforms, including potters' markets and online pottery boutiques have contributed to this trend.
This article covers pottery vessels, mainly from the ancient Indian cultures known from archaeology. There has also been much figurative sculpture and decorativetilework androof tiles in ceramics in the subcontinent, with the production ofterracotta figurines being widespread in different regions and periods. InBengal in particular, a lack of stone produced an extensive tradition ofarchitectural sculpture for temples and mosques in terracotta and carved brick. The approximately life-size figures decoratinggopurams inSouth India are usually painted terracotta. Traditional pottery in the subcontinent is usually made by specializedkumhar (Sanskrit:kumbhakära) potter communities.
In 2018, the value ofceramics of all types produced in theRepublic of India was projected to reach €7.5 billion in 2022.[2] In 2022, annual production of ceramictableware in India was estimated to be 40,000 tonnes.[3]
Mesolithic, also calledMiddle Stone Age, is an intermediate cultural stage between thePaleolithic (Old Stone Age) which had chipped stone tools andNeolithic (New Stone Age) with polished stone tools. The Mesolithic hunter gatherers had better efficiency than Paleolithic with ability to more diverse range of animal and vegetable food sources.[4]
Cord-Impressed style pottery belongs to 'Mesolithic' ceramic tradition that developed amongVindhya hunter-gatherers during theMesolithic period.[5][6] This ceramic style is also found in later Proto-Neolithic phase in nearby regions.[7] This early type of pottery, found at the site ofLahuradewa andChopanimando, is currently the oldest known pottery tradition in South Asia, dating back to 7,000-6,000 BC.[8][9][10][11]
Neolithic, also called New Stone Age, is "final stage of cultural evolution or technological development among prehistoric humans. It was characterized by stone tools shaped by polishing or grinding, dependence on domesticated plants or animals, settlement in permanent villages, and the appearance of such crafts as pottery and weaving."[12]
Ahar–Banas culture is aChalcolithicarchaeological culture on the banks ofAhar River of southeasternRajasthan state inIndia,[13] lasting fromc. 3000 to 1500 BC, contemporary and adjacent to theIndus Valley civilization. Situated along theBanas andBerach Rivers, as well as theAhar River, the Ahar-Banas people were exploiting the copper ores of theAravalli Range to make axes and other artefacts. They were sustained on a number of crops, including wheat and barley. The design motifs of the seals are generally quite simple, with wide-ranging parallels from variousIndus Civilization sites.
Amri-Nal culture:[14] Dated to 4th and 3rd millennia BC the dualtypesites areAmri in Sindh andNal in Balochistan in Pakistan.
Amri, also has non-Harappan phases during 6000 BC to 4000 BC, and later Harappan Phases till 1300 BCE.
Bhirrana culture is likely the oldest pre-Harappan neolithic site dating back to 7570–6200 BCE.[15] The pottery repertoire is very rich and the diagnostic wares of this period included Mud Applique Wares, Incised (Deep and Light), Tan/Chocolate Slipped Wares, Brown-on-Buff Wares, Bichrome Wares (Paintings on the exterior with black and white pigments), Black-on-Red Ware and plain red wares.[16]
Kunal culture is in Hisar district of Haryana in India, has distinct i.e. local pottery and house styles.Hoard, which is a pot containing gold-leaf, silver ornaments and beads of semi-precious stones indicate contact and trade with Harappan culture.[14] Earliest phase is dated to 4000 BC, it is older than Early-Harappan site ofRehman Dheri which was dated to 3300 BC.[17]
The earliest site of this culture is Kunal (4000 BCE)[17] in Haryana which is older than Rehman Dheri (3300 BCE).[18] Thetype site, the first excavated site of this type of culture is Kot Diji.[19] Rehman Dheri, which was considered oldest example of this culture, is now the second oldest example of this culture after Kunal was excavated and found to be older than Rehman Dher with similar older cultural artifacts then the Rehman Dheri.[17]
Kot Diji and Amri are close to each other in Sindh, they earlier developed indigenous culture which had common elements, later they came in contact with Harappan culture and fully developed into Harappan culture. Earliest examples of artifacts belonging to this culture were found at Rehman Dheri, however, later excavations found the oldest example of this culture at Kunal. These are cultural ancestor to site atHarappa. These sites have pre-Harappan indigenous cultural levels, distinct from the culture of Harappa, these are at Banawali (level I), Kot Diji (level 3A), Amri (level II). Rehman Dheri also has a pre Kot Diji phase (RHD1 3300-28 BCE) which are not part of IVC culture. Kot Diji has two later phases that continue into and alongside Mature Harappan Phase (RHDII and RHDII 2500-2100 BCE). Fortified towns found here are dated as follows.[19][17][20][21][22]
There is no pottery in Mehrgarh Period I but evidence of pottery begins from Period II. In period III, the finds become much more abundant as thepotter's wheel is introduced, and they show more intricate designs and also animal motifs.[25] The characteristic female figurines appear beginning in Period IV and the finds show more intricate designs and sophistication.Pipal leaf designs are used in decoration from Period VI.[26] Some sophisticated firing techniques were used from Periods VI and VII and an area reserved for the pottery industry has been found at mound MR1. However, by Period VIII, the quality and intricacy of designs seem to have suffered due to mass production, and a growing interest in bronze and copper vessels.[27][25]
Sothi-Siswal is the site of a Pre-Indus Valley Civilisation settlement dating to as early as 4600 BCE. Sothi culture may be as early as 4600 BCE, while the earliest Siswal A layer is dated 3800-3200 BCE, and is equivalent to the Middle and Upper layers of Sothi. Sothi culture precedes Siswal culture considerably, and should be seen as the earlier tradition.[22]
Sothi-Siswal culture is named after these two sites, located 70 km apart. As many as 165 sites of this culture have been reported. There are also broad similarities between Sothi-Siswal andKot Diji ceramics. Kot Diji culture area is located just to the northwest of the Sothi-Siswal area.[28] Type sites areSiswal inHisar district ofharyana andSothi in Rajasthan along theGhaggar–Chautang rivers (identified with paleoSarasvati-Drishadvati inVedic texts) in theGanga–Yamunadoab, with least 165 Sothi-Siswal sites identified with this culture including Nawabans, 2 sites are bigger than 20 hectares.[14]Sothi-Siswal ceramics are found as far south as the Ahar-Banas culture area in southeastern Rajasthan.
Rangpur culture, nearVanala onSaurashtra peninsula inGujarat, lies on the tip between theGulf of Khambhat andGulf of Kutch, it belongs to the period of the Indus valley civilization, and lies to the northwest of the larger site ofLothal.[29] Trail Diggings were conducted byArcheological Survey of India (ASI) during 1931 led by M.S.Vats(madho svarup vats). Later, Ghurye (1939), Dikshit (1947) and S.R.Rao (1953–56) excavated the site under ASI projects.[30] S.R.Rao has classified the deposits into four periods with three sub periods in Harappan Culture, Period II with an earlier Period, Microlithic and a Middle Paleolithic State (River sections) with points, scrapers and blades of jasper. The dates given by S.R.Rao are:
These cultures developed separately from IVC. All of these cultures have distinct cultural traits, such as artifacts, pottery design and patterns, which are different from the typical 3 IVC Phases. These cultures have some overlap with Indus Valley Civilization. These are either sites older than IVC in and around core zone of IVC where IVC cultural phases were also found; or the sites contemporaneous to IVC, usually found around the periphery of IVC core zone, which exhibit distinct cultural characteristics with some cultural overlap with IVC. Some of these had cultural contact and trade with IVC, hence the pottery found on these sites has some cultural overlap with IVC. In many cases, where these sites are within IVC core zone, pottery belonging to IVC culture has been found in the higher layers of the mound. These cultures are usually classified in the following 3 ways:
Cultures which were contemporaneous with the"Early Harappan Phase" (3200-2600 BCE) were the Ahar–Banas, Amri-Nal, Damb-Sadat, Kot Diji and Sothi-Siswal cultures.Harappa is its type site of this phase of IVC, which also had an early phase dating to 3500 BCE. IVC sites of this phase were village communities engaged in agricultural and domestication of animals, and specialised crafts. It late evolved into urbanisedMature Harappan Phase. Cultures which were contemporaneous with the"Mature Harappan Phase" (2600-1900 BCE) are Bara, Kunal, Rangpur cultures[14] some of these pre-date IVC (Early-Harappan) culture.
Indus Valley Civilisation has an ancient tradition of pottery making. Though the origin of pottery in India can be traced back to the much earlier Mesolithic age, with coarse handmade pottery - bowls, jars, vessels - in various colours such as red, orange, brown, black and cream. During theIndus Valley Civilization, there is proof of pottery being constructed in two ways, handmade and wheel-made.[31]
Damb-Sadat culture: Based on thepottery found here, it is classified as a separate archaeological culture / subculture of Indus Valley Civilization.[14][32]
Kot Diji:[14] Site in Sindh is dated to 3300 BCE.[33]
The type site isHarappa. This phase has been found at numerous other sites, all of which have earlier much older indigenous cultural phases, example of those sites include Birrana,Rakhigarhi, Kunal,Siswal in Haryana in India; Sothi in Rajasthan in India; Mehrgarh and Amri in Pakistan.
Cemetery H culture in Punjab and Jhukar and Jhangar culture in Sindh flourished during this phase. Rangpur culture in Gujarat India was also contemporaneous with this phase of IVC, which had distinct cultural characteristics, and traded with IVC cultures.
Bara culture:[14] Dated to 2000 BCE in doab betweenYamuna andSutlej rivers nearShivalik ranges of lower Himalayas, this cultures area corresponds to modern-dayPunjab,Haryana andWestern Uttar Pradesh inNorth India.[34]
Cemetery H culture was a Bronze Age cultural regional form in thePunjab region and north-western India, from about 1900 BCE until about 1300 BCE, of the late phase of theHarappan (Indus Valley) civilisation (alongside theJhukar culture of Sindh andRangpur culture of Gujarat), and it has also been connected with the early stages of theIndo-Aryan migrations. It was named after a cemetery found in "area H" atHarappa.[35][36][37] According to Kenoyer, the Cemetery H culture "may only reflect a change in the focus of settlement organization from that which was the pattern of the earlier Harappan phase and not cultural discontinuity,urban decay, invading aliens, or site abandonment, all of which have been suggested in the past."[38]
Jhukar Phase was a LateBronze Age culture that existed in the lowerIndus Valley, i.e.Sindh, during the 2nd millennium BC. Named after the archaeologicaltype site Jhukar in Sindh, it was a regional form of the LateHarappan culture, following the mature, urban phase of the civilization.[39]
Jhukar phase was followed by theJhangar Phase,[39] which is a non-urban culture, characterised by "crude handmade pottery" and "campsites of a population which was nomadic and mainly pastoralist," and is dated to approximately the late second millennium BCE and early first millennium BCE.[40] In Sindh, urban growth began again after approximately 500 BCE.[41]
Together with theGandhara grave culture and theOchre Coloured Pottery culture, theCemetery H culture is considered by some scholars as a factor in the formation of theVedic civilization.[42]
Wilhelm Rau (1972) has examined the references topottery inVedic texts like the BlackYajur Veda and theTaittiriya Samhita. According to his study,Vedic pottery is for example hand-made and unpainted. According to Kuzmina (1983), Vedic pottery that matches Rau's description cannot be found inAsia Minor andCentral Asia, though the pottery ofAndronovo culture is similar in some respects.[43]
Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP) is a2nd millennium BCBronze Age culture of theIndo-Gangetic Plain, extending fromeastern Punjab to northeasternRajasthan andwestern Uttar Pradesh.[44] It is considered a candidate for association with the earlyIndo-Aryan orVedic culture. Early specimens of the characteristic ceramics found near Jodhpura,Rajasthan, date from the 3rd millennium (this Jodhpura is located in the district ofJaipur and should not be confused with the city ofJodhpur). Several sites of culture flourish along the banks ofSahibi River and its tributaries such asKrishnavati river and Soti river, all originating from theAravalli range and flowing from south to north-east direction towardsYamuna before disappearing inMahendragarh district ofHaryana.[45]
The culture reached theGangetic plain in the early 2nd millennium. Recently, the Archaeological Survey of India discovered copper axes and some pieces of pottery in its excavation at the Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh. The Ochre Coloured Pottery culture has the potential to be called a proper civilisation (e.g., the North Indian Ochre civilisation) like the Harrapan civilisation, but is termed only as a culture pending further discoveries.[46]
Copper Hoard culture occur in the northern part of India mostly in hoards large and small and are believed to date to the later 2nd millennium BCE, although very few derive from controlled and dateable excavation contexts. Thedoab hoards are associated with the so-called Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) which appears to be closely associated with theLate Harappan (or Posturban) phase. These hoard artefacts are a main manifestation of thearchaeology of India during the metals age, of which many are deposited in the"KanyaGurukul museum" inNarela andHaryana.[47]
Gandhara grave culture, also calledSwat culture, emergedc. 1600 BC, and flourishedc. 1500 BC to 500 BC inGandhara, which lies in modern-dayPakistan andAfghanistan. It may be associated with earlyIndo-Aryan speakers as well as theIndo-Aryan migrations into theIndian subcontinent,[42] which came from theBactria–Margiana region. According to Kochhar, the Indo-Aryan culture fused with indigenous elements of the remnants of theIndus Valley Civilisation (OCP,Cemetery H) and gave rise to theVedic Civilization.[42]
Black and red ware culture (BRW) is a lateBronze Age and earlyIron Agearchaeological culture of the northern and centralIndian subcontinent, associated with theVedic civilization. In the WesternGanges plain (westernUttar Pradesh) it is dated to c. 1450-1200 BCE, and is succeeded by thePainted Grey Ware culture; whereas in the Central and Eastern Ganges plain (eastern Uttar Pradesh,Bihar, andBengal) and Central India (Madhya Pradesh) the BRW appears during the same period but continues for longer, until c. 700-500 BCE, when it is succeeded by theNorthern Black Polished Ware culture.[48] In the Western Ganges plain, the BRW was preceded by theOchre Coloured Pottery culture. The BRW sites were characterized bysubsistence agriculture (cultivation of rice, barley, and legumes), and yielded some ornaments made of shell, copper,carnelian, andterracotta.[49] In some sites, particularly ineastern Punjab andGujarat, BRW pottery is associated with LateHarappan pottery, and according to some scholars like Tribhuan N. Roy, the BRW may have directly influenced thePainted Grey Ware andNorthern Black Polished Ware cultures.[50]
ThePainted Grey Ware (PWG) culture is anIron Ageculture of the westernGangetic plain and theGhaggar-Hakra valley, lasting from roughly 1200 BCE to 600 BCE,[51][52][53] which probably corresponds to the middle and lateVedic period, i.e., theKuru-Panchala kingdom, the first large state in South Asia after the decline of theIndus Valley civilization.[54][55] It is a successor of theBlack and red ware culture (BRW) within this region, and contemporary with the continuation of the BRW culture in the eastern Gangetic plain and Central India.[48]
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Northern Black Polished Ware (abbreviatedNBPW orNBP) is an urbanIron Age culture of theIndian subcontinent, lasting c. 700–200 BCE, succeeding thePainted Grey Ware culture andBlack and red ware culture. It developed beginning around 700 BC, in the lateVedic period, and peaked from c. 500–300 BC, coinciding with the emergence of 16 great states ormahajanapadas in Northern India, and the subsequent rise of theMauryan Empire.[note 1]
The Red Polished Ware (RPW) is found in great quantities inGujarat, especially in theKathiawar region.[57] Commonly, it consist of domestic forms like cooking pots, and it dates started from 300 BCE and lasted till 1000 CE.
But this type of ware also is widely distributed in other places in India. It is found atBaroda, Timberva (Surat),Vadnagar, Vala, Prabhas,Sutrapada, Bhandaria, and many other places. The use of this pottery continued for many centuries.
Early on, the scholars considered this pottery as a diagnostic marker for ‘Indo-Roman trade’, showing the possibility of theRoman empire influence. Also, this type of pottery was identified at sites bordering thePersian Gulf, so it became significant for the research on the Indian Ocean trade.
Red Polished Ware was first identified in 1953 by B. Subbarao.[58] According to him, a "high degree of finish led to consider it as an imported ware or at least an imitation of theRoman Samian Ware".[59]
But in 1966 S. R. Rao in his report onAmreli rejected this possibility of a Roman influence. He insisted on an indigenous origin as none of the forms shared the shapes of Roman prototype.[60] He presented a broad variety of vessel types consisting of clay suitable to that definition. Instead he referred to a similarity of vessels of Black Ware with polished surface [Black Polished ware] from the same site noted in layers beyond the first occurrence of RPW.[61]
According to Heidrun Schenk, the pottery defined as RPW consists of two very distinct functional groups. Thus, the subject needs more precise classification and dating.
One group belongs to the local pottery development of a region around Gujarat—mostly domestic vessels like cooking pots. The core area of this group is western India, but it is also distributed elsewhere on the western littoral of the Indian Ocean.
The other group are the very specialized types of the 'sprinkler' and 'spouted' water jars, that often go together. This special group is widely found in the eastern region of the Indian Ocean, throughout the South Asian subcontinent and South East Asia with many different fabrics. This group represents a later development continuing well into the Middle Ages.
In particular, inTissamaharama, in the Southern Province ofSri Lanka, a good stratigraphy is found.
Early Red Polished Ware is often associated with the Northern Black Polished ware (NBP), and goes back to 3rd century BC.[61]
Red Polished Ware has also been found inKushan (39-375 CE),Gupta (4th to early 6th century CE) and Vardhan period (Pushyabhuti dynasty, early 6th century to 7th century CE) inNorth India, one such example isHarsh Ka Tila in Haryana.[62][63]
Malwa culture was aChalcolithicarchaeological culture which existed in theMalwa region of Central India and parts ofMaharashtra in theDeccan Peninsula. It is mainly dated toc. 1600 – c. 1300 BCE,[64] but calibratedradiocarbon dates have suggested that the beginning of this culture may be as early asc. 2000-1750 BCE.[65] the unique aspect of the Malwa culture is they do not use potter's wheel instead the whole process is done by hand.[66]
Jorwe culture was aChalcolithicarchaeological culture which existed in large areas of what is nowMaharashtra state in WesternIndia, and also reached north into theMalwa region ofMadhya Pradesh. It is named after thetype site ofJorwe. The early phase of the culture is dated toc. 1400-1000 BCE, while the late phase is dated toc. 1000-700 BCE.[67]
Rang Mahal culture, a post-Vedic culture,[68] is a collection of more than 124 sites spread acrossSriganganagar,Suratgarh,Sikar,Alwar andJhunjhunu districts along thepalaeochannel ofGhaggar-Hakra River (Sarasvati-Drishadvati rivers) dating toKushan (1st to 3rd CE) andGupta (4th to 7th CE) period, is named after the first archaeologicalTheris excavated by the Swedish scientists at Rang Mahal village which is famous for the terracota of the early gupta period excavated from the ancienttheris in the village.[69][70] The Rang Mahal culture is famed for the beautifully painted vases on red surface with floral, animal, bird and geometric designs painted in black.[71][72]
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The phase of glazed pottery started in the 13th century CE, when Turkic rulers encouraged potters from Persia, Central Asia and elsewhere to settle in present-day Northern India. Glazed pottery of Persian models with Indian designs, dating back to the Sultanate period, has been found in Gujarat and Maharashtra.
Current eraBlue Pottery of Jaipur is widely recognized as a traditional craft ofJaipur.[73]
Over time India's simple style of molding clay went into an evolution. A number of distinct styles emerged from this simple style. Some of the most popular forms of pottery include unglazed pottery, glazed pottery, terracotta, and papier-mache.[74]
Unglazed pottery, the oldest form of pottery practiced in India, is of three types. First is paper thin pottery, biscuit-coloured pottery decorated with incised patterns. Next is thescraffito technique, thematka pot is polished and painted with red and white slips along with intricate patterns. The third ispolished pottery, this type of pottery is strong and deeply incised, and has stylized patterns ofarabesques.[74]
Early glazed ceramics were used for making beads, seals, bangles during Neolithic period but these glazes were very rarely used on pottery.[1][75] These glazed beads and bangles are predominantly in colours of light blue and green with common occurrence of white, red, dark blue and black coloured glazed beads are also known.[76][77]
Glazed pottery more noticeably began in the 12th century AD. This type of pottery often has a white background and has blue and green patterns. Glazed pottery is only practiced in parts of the country.[74]
Terracotta is the term used for unglazedearthenware, and for ceramic sculpture made in it.Indian sculpture made heavy use of terracotta from a very early period (with stone and metal sculpture being rather rare), and in more sophisticated areas had largely abandoned modelling for using moulds by the 1st century BC. This allows relatively large figures, nearly up to life-size, to be made, especially in theGupta period (319-543 CE) and the centuries immediately following it. Several vigorous local popular traditions of terracotta folk sculpture remain active today, such as theBankura horses.[78] Often women prepare clay figures to propitiate their gods and goddesses, during festivals. In Moela deities are created with moulded clay on a flat surface. They are then fired and painted in bright colours. Other parts of India use this style to make figures like horses with riders, sometimesvotive offerings.[74]
Akulhar is a traditional handle-lesspottery cup fromIndian subcontinent that is typically undecorated and unglazed, and is meant to be disposable.[79]
{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal= (help)... 2000 BC Bara Culture : Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh ... In the post-Harappan context, Bara is considered as a distinct culture, that dominates the entire Sutlej-Yamuna divide ... The jars, water vessels are incised on shoulder and rusticated at the bottom. The typical classical Harappan shapes such as perforated jar, S shaped jar, tall dish-on-stand with drum, goblet, beaker and handled-cup disappear ... the Bara tradition in the north appears to be parallel to the Harappa tradition at least along the Sutlej ... early phase is usually assignable to a period earlier than the classical Harappan phase ...
The simple clay kulhar, which is made in thousands as an inexpensive container for curd, sweets, tea or water, and after being used only once is thrown away, has the same form as those excavated at the Indus Valley or ...