Positive psychology is the scientific study of conditions and processes that contribute to positive psychological states (e.g., contentment, joy),well-being,positive relationships, and positive institutions.[1][2]
Positive psychology began as a new domain ofpsychology in 1998 whenMartin Seligman chose it as the theme for his term as president of theAmerican Psychological Association.[3][4] It is a reaction against past practices that tended to focus on mental illness and emphasizedmaladaptive behavior and negative thinking. It builds on thehumanistic movement ofAbraham Maslow andCarl Rogers, which encourages an emphasis onhappiness,well-being, andpurpose.[4]
Positive psychology largely relies on concepts from theWestern philosophical tradition, such as theAristotelian concept ofeudaimonia,[5] which is typically rendered in English with the terms "flourishing", "the good life," or "happiness".[6] Positive psychologists study empirically the conditions and processes that contribute toflourishing,subjective well-being, andhappiness,[7] often using these terms interchangeably.
Positive psychologists suggest several factors that may contribute to happiness and subjective well-being. These include strong social ties such asː family, friends, colleagues, and wider networks, involvement in clubs or social organization, regular physical exercise, and practices like mediation. Spiritual practice and religious commitment is another possible source for increased well-being.[8] Its Key principles are based on focusing on the positive aspects of human experience, a strengths-based approach that identifies individual strengths, like optimism, resilience and gratitude. It also emphasizes ones overall Well-being and promotes engagement and relationships. It also differentiates Hedonic (pleasure-seeking) and eudaemonic (purpose and fulfillment) happiness.[9]
Positive psychology has practical applications in various fields related to education, workplace, community development, and mental healthcare. This domain of psychology aims to enrich individuals' lives by promoting well-being and fostering positive experiences and characteristics, thus contributing to a more fulfilling and meaningful life.
Before the first use of the term "positive psychology," researchers focused on topics that would now be included under the umbrella of positive psychology.[10] Some view positive psychology as a meeting ofEastern thought, such asBuddhism andHinduism, and Westernpsychodynamic approaches.[11]
The historical Western roots of positive psychology are found in the teachings ofAristotle, whoseNicomachean Ethics is a description of the theory and practice of human flourishing—which he referred to aseudaimonia (a Greek word literally translating to the state or condition ofgood spirit, and which is commonly translated ashappiness orwelfare)—of the tutelage necessary to achieve it, and of the psychological obstacles to its practice.[12] It teaches the cultivation ofvirtues as the means of attaining happiness and well-being.[13]
Scientific research on well-being dates back to the 1950s.[14][15] Severalhumanistic psychologists, most notably Maslow,Carl Rogers, andErich Fromm, developed theories and practices pertaining to humanhappiness and flourishing. More recently, positive psychologists have foundempirical support for the humanistic theories of flourishing.[16]
In 1984, psychologistEd Diener published histripartite model of subjective well-being,[17] which posited "three distinct but often related components of wellbeing: frequent positive affect, infrequent negative affect, and cognitive evaluations such aslife satisfaction."[18] In this model,cognitive,affective, and contextual factors contribute to subjective well-being.[19] According to Diener and Suh, subjective well-being is "based on the idea that how each person thinks and feels about his or her life is important."[20]
Carol Ryff'ssix-factor model of psychological well-being was first published in 1989. It postulates thatself-acceptance,personal growth,purpose in life, environmental mastery,autonomy, and positive relations with others are crucial to well-being.[21]
According toCorey Keyes, who collaborated withCarol Ryff and used the termflourishing as a central concept, mental well-being has three components:hedonic (i.e. subjective or emotional[22]), psychological, and social well-being.[23]Hedonic well-being concerns emotional aspects of well-being, whereas psychological and social well-being, e.g. eudaimonic well-being, concerns skills, abilities, and optimal functioning.[24] This tripartite model of mental well-being has received cross-cultural empirical support.[22][24][25]
The positive psychology movement was first founded in 1998 by Martin Seligman. He was concerned about the fact that mainstream psychology was too focused on disease, disorders, and disabilities rather than well-being, resilience, and recovery. He aimed to apply mainstream psychology's methodological, scientific, scholarly, and organizational strengths to facilitate well-being rather than illness and disease.[26]
The field has been influenced by humanistic[27] andpsychodynamic approaches to treatment. Predating the use of the term "positive psychology", researchers within the field of psychology had focused on topics that would now be included under this new denomination.[10]
The term "positive psychology" dates at least to 1954, whenAbraham Maslow'sMotivation and Personality was published with a final chapter titled "Toward a Positive Psychology."[28] In the second edition published in 1970, he removed that chapter, saying in the preface that "a positive psychology is at least available today though not very widely."[29] There have been indications that psychologists since the 1950s have increasingly focused on promotingmental health rather than merely treating mental illness.[30] From the beginning of psychology, the field addressed the human experience using the "Disease model," studying and identifying thedysfunction of a person.
In the opening sentence of his bookAuthentic Happiness, Seligman claimed: "For the last half century psychology has been consumed with a single topic only—mental illness,"[31]: xi expanding on Maslow's comments half a century earlier.[32] He urged psychologists to continue the earlier missions of psychology of nurturing talent and improving everyday life.[33]: 1–22
The first positive psychology summit took place in 1999. The First International Conference on Positive Psychology took place in 2002.[33]: 1–22 In September 2005, the first master's program in applied positive psychology (MAPP) was launched at the University of Pennsylvania.[34] In 2006, a course on positive psychology atHarvard University was one of the most popular courses on offer.[35] In June 2009, the First World Congress on Positive Psychology took place inPhiladelphia.[36]
The field of positive psychology today is most advanced in the United States, Canada, Western Europe, and Australia.[37]
Positive psychology, as defined byMartin Seligman andMihaly Csikszentmihalyi is "the scientific study of positive human functioning and flourishing on multiple levels that include the biological, personal, relational, institutional, cultural, and global dimensions of life."[38]
Positive psychology aims to complement and extend traditional problem-focused psychology. It concerns positive states (e.g. happiness), positive traits (e.g. talents, interests, strengths of character), positive relationships, and positive institutions and how these apply to physical health.[39]
Seligman proposes that a person can best promote their well-being by nurturing theircharacter strengths.[40] Seligman identifies other possible goals of positive psychology: families and schools that allow children to grow, workplaces that aim for satisfaction and high productivity, and teaching others about positive psychology.[41]
A basic premise of positive psychology is that human actions arise from our anticipations about the future; these anticipations are informed by our past experiences.[42]
Those who practice positive psychology attemptpsychological interventions that foster positive attitudes toward one's subjective experiences, individual traits, and life events.[43] The goal is to minimizepathological thoughts that may arise in a hopeless mindset and to develop a sense of optimism toward life.[43] Positive psychologists seek to encourage acceptance of one's past, excitement and optimism about one's future, and a sense of contentment and well-being in the present.[44]
Two definitions: Happiness can be understood both as an enjoyable state of mind and the living of an enjoyable, fulfilling life.[45]
Quality of life refers to overall well-being,[46] encompassing not just physical and mental health but also socioeconomic factors. This concept is subjective and may vary across different cultures and regions.[47]
Positive psychology according to Seligman andChristopher Peterson, addresses three issues:
According to Peterson, positive psychologists are concerned with four topics: positive experiences, enduring psychological traits, positive relationships, and positive institutions.[52] He also states that topics of interest toresearchers in the field are states ofpleasure orflow,values, strengths, virtues, talents, as well as the ways that these can be promoted bysocial systems and institutions.[53]
There is no accepted "gold standard" theory in positive psychology. The work of Seligman is regularly quoted,[54] as is the work of Csikszentmihalyi, and older models of well-being, such as Ryff'ssix-factor model of psychological well-being and Diener's tripartite model of subjective well-being.
Later, Paul Wong introduced the concept ofsecond-wave positive psychology.
InAuthentic Happiness (2002) Seligman proposed three kinds of a happy life that can be investigated:[31]: 275 [54]
InFlourish (2011), Seligman argued that the last category of his proposed three kinds of a happy life, "meaningful life", can be considered as three different categories. The resulting summary for this theory is themnemonic acronymPERMA: Positive Emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning and purpose, and Accomplishments.[54][58]
Each of the five PERMA elements was selected according to three criteria:
TheCharacter Strengths and Virtues (CSV) handbook (2004) was the first attempt by Seligman and Peterson to identify and classify positive psychological traits of human beings. Much like theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) of general psychology, the CSV provided a theoretical framework to assist in understanding strengths and virtues and for developing practical applications for positive psychology. It identified six classes of virtues (i.e., "core virtues"), underlying 24 measurable character strengths.[64]
The CSV suggested these six virtues have a historical basis in the vast majority of cultures and that they can lead to increased happiness when built upon. Notwithstanding numerous cautions and caveats, this suggestion of universality leads to three theories:[64]: 51
The organization of the six virtues and 24 strengths is as follows:
Subsequent research challenged the need for six virtues. Instead, researchers suggested the 24 strengths are more accurately grouped into just three or four categories: Intellectual Strengths, Interpersonal Strengths, and Temperance Strengths,[65] or alternatively, Interpersonal Strengths, Fortitude, Vitality, and Cautiousness.[66] These strengths, and their classifications, have emerged independently elsewhere in literature on values.Paul Thagard described some examples.[67]
In the 1970s, Csikszentmihalyi began studyingflow, a state of absorption in which one's abilities are well-matched to the demands at-hand. He often refers to it as "optimal experience".[68] Flow is characterized by intenseconcentration, loss of self-awareness, a feeling of being perfectly challenged (neither bored nor overwhelmed), and a sense that "time is flying." Flow is intrinsically rewarding; it can also assist in the achievement ofgoals (e.g., winning a game) or improving skills (e.g., becoming a better chess player).[69] Anyone can experience flow and it can be felt in different domains, such as play,creativity, and work.
Flow is achieved when the challenge of the situation meets one's personal abilities. A mismatch of challenge for someone of low skills results in a state of anxiety and feeling overwhelmed; insufficient challenge for someone highly skilled results inboredom.[69] A good example of this would be an adult reading a children's book. They would not feel challenged enough to be engaged or motivated in the reading. Csikszentmihalyi explained this using various combinations of challenge and skills to predict psychological states. These four states included the following:[70]
Accordingly, an adult reading a children's book would most likely be in the relaxation state. The adult has no need to worry that the task will be more than they can handle. Challenge is a well-founded explanation for how one enters the flow state and employs intense concentration. However, other factors contribute. For example, one must be intrinsically motivated to participate in the activity or challenge. If the person is not interested in the task, then there is no possibility of their being absorbed into the flow state.[71]
Flow can help in parenting children.[72] When parents and children experience flow together it creates a positive experience for both the children and parents. Parents and children can be in a flow together when they are doing activities with each other such as dancing and singing, doing arts and crafts with each other, and overall just playing together. In parenting flow is a state when a parent is fully concentrated on their children and are fully engaged with them, they could lose track of time and they are more focused and controlled.
Flow also has benefits in a school setting. When students are in a state of flow they are fully engaged, leading to better retention of information.[73] Students who experience flow have a more enjoyable and rewarding experience.[74] This state can also reduce stress, which helps with students' mental health and well-being.[75] This increases resilience and helps students to overcome challenges or setbacks by teaching them agrowth mindset.[76]
Most teachers and parents want students become more engaged and interested in the classroom. The design of the education system was not able to account for such needs.[77] One school implemented a program called PASS. They acknowledged that students needed more challenge and individual advancement; they referred to this as sport culture. This PASS program integrated an elective class into which students could immerse themselves. Such activities included self-paced learning, mastery-based learning, performance learning, and so on.[70]
Flow benefits general well-being. It is a positive and intrinsically motivating experience. It is known to "produce intense feelings of enjoyment".[71] It can improve our lives by making them happier and more meaningful. Csikszentmihalyi discovered that our personal growth and development generates happiness. Flow is positive experience because it promotes that opportunity for personal development.[78]
Although flow can be helpful to students,[79] it can also cause them to become too focused on one specific thing, and neglect other important aspects and areas of their learning.[80]
In positive psychology, people still question the definition of what constitutes "positive". For example, being optimistic can be seen as a valuable trait; however, in certain contexts, it can also lead to poor health outcomes or risky decision-making .[81] There are other emotions that can be labeled as "negative", for example, anxiety. Anxiety could cause someone to become more mindful and stable, so they are able to adapt to situations, and as a result can be seen as a positive.[81] A second wave of positive psychology has further identified and characterized "positive" and "negative" complexes through the use of critical and dialectical thinking.[81] Researchers in 2016 chose to identify these characteristics via two complexes: post-traumatic growth and love as well as optimism vs. pessimism.[81]
Paul Wong introduced the idea of a second wave of positive psychology, focused on the pursuit of meaning in life, which he contrasted with the pursuit of happiness in life.[82] Ivtzan, Lomas, Hefferon, and Worth have recast positive psychology as being about positive outcome or positive mental health, and have explored the positive outcomes of embracing negative emotions and pessimism.[83] Second-wave positive psychology proposes that it is better to accept and transform the meaning of suffering than it is to avoid suffering.[84]
In 2016, Lomas and Itzvan proposed that human flourishing (their goal for positive psychology) is about embracing dialectic interplay of positive and negative.[81] Phenomena cannot be determined to be positive or negative independent of context. Some of their examples included:
In 2019, Wong proposed four principles of second-wave positive psychology:[84]
Second-wave positive psychology is sometimes abbreviated as PP 2.0.
The third wave of positive psychology emphasizes going beyond the individual to take a deeper look at the groups and systems in which we live. It also promotes becoming more interdisciplinary and multicultural and incorporates more methodologies.[86]
In broadening the scope and exploring the systemic and socio-cultural dimensions of people's lived realities, there are four specific things to focus on:[81]
Subject-matter andmethodology development expanded the field of positive psychology beyond its core theories and methods. Positive psychology is now a global area of study, with various national indices tracking citizens' happiness ratings.
Research in positive psychology, well-being,eudaimonia and happiness, and the theories of Diener, Ryff, Keyes, and Seligman cover a broad range of topics including "the biological, personal, relational, institutional, cultural, and global dimensions of life."[43]
Ameta-analysis of 49 studies showed that Positive Psychology Interventions (PPI) produced improvements in well-being and lowerdepression levels; the PPIs studied included writing gratitude letters, learning optimistic thinking, replaying positive life experiences, and socializing with others.[89] In a later meta-analysis of 39 studies with 6,139 participants, the outcomes were positive.[90] Three to six months after a PPI the effects on subjective well-being and psychological well-being were still significant. However the positive effect was weaker than in the earlier meta-analysis; the authors concluded that this was because they only used higher-quality studies. The PPIs they considered included counting blessings,kindness practices, making personal goals, showing gratitude, and focusing on personal strengths. Another review of PPIs found that over 78% of intervention studies were conducted in Western countries.[91]
In the textbookPositive Psychology: The Science of Happiness, authors Compton and Hoffman give the "Top Down Predictors" of well-being as highself esteem,optimism,self efficacy, a sense of meaning in life, and positive relationships with others.[92] The personality traits most associated with well-being areextraversion,agreeability, and low levels ofneuroticism.
In a study published in 2020, students were enrolled in a positive psychology course that focused on improving happiness and well-being through teaching about positive psychology.[93] The participants answered questions pertaining to the five PERMA categories. At the end of the semester those same students reported significantly higher scores in all categories (p<.001) except for engagement which was significant at p<.05. The authors stated, "Not only do students learn and get credit, there is also a good chance that many will reap the benefits in what is most important to them—their health, happiness, and well-being."[93]
A systematic review was conducted to explore the impact of positive psychology interventions on breast cancer patients' mental and physical well-being. The review analyzed multiple studies that examined interventions such as mindfulness, gratitude practices, and strengths-based approaches in improving quality of life for those diagnosed with breast cancer. Results consistently demonstrated that these interventions significantly reduced symptoms of anxiety, depression, and stress, while fostering resilience, optimism, and emotional well-being. Furthermore, positive psychology approaches were found to enhance patients' adherence to treatment and improve their ability to cope with the challenges of illness and recovery. This review highlights the growing evidence for incorporating positive psychology into breast cancer care, underscoring its potential to support both mental health and holistic recovery in patients.[94]
A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted using various positive psychology techniques to enhance the well-being of individuals with psychiatric and somatic disorders, including breast cancer patients. Key methods included mindfulness-based interventions, gratitude exercises, and strength identification, which aimed to build emotional resilience. Additionally, practices like savoring, cognitive reappraisal, and self-compassion were employed to foster positive emotions and coping strategies. These interventions significantly contributed to reducing distress and promoting overall psychological health by encouraging patients to focus on positive aspects of life despite their challenges.[95]
Quantitative methods in positive psychology include p-techniquefactor analysis, dynamic factor analysis, interindividual differences andstructural equation modeling, spectral analysis and item response models, dynamic systems analysis, latent growth analysis,latent-class models,hierarchical linear modeling,measurement invariance,experimental methods,behavior genetics, and integration of quantitative andqualitative approaches.[96]
Grant J. Rich explored the use ofqualitative methodology to study positive psychology.[97] Rich addresses the popularity of quantitative methods in studying theempirical questions that positive psychology presents. He argues that there is an "overemphasis" on quantitative methods and suggests implementing qualitative methods, such assemi-structured interviews,observations,fieldwork,creative artwork, andfocus groups. Rich states that qualitative approaches will further promote the "flourishing of positive psychology" and encourages such practice.[97]
Changing happiness levels throughinterventions is a further methodological advancement in the study of positive psychology, and has been the focus of variousacademic and scientific psychological publications. Happiness-enhancing interventions include expressingkindness,gratitude,optimism,humility,awe, andmindfulness.
Onebehavioral experiment used two six-week interventions:[98] one involving the performance of acts of kindness, and one focused on gratitude which emphasized the counting of one's blessings. The study participants who went through the behavioral interventions reported higher levels of happiness and well-being than those who did not participate in either intervention.
Another study found that the interventions of expressing optimism and expressing gratitude enhanced subjective well-being in participants who took part in the intervention for eight months.[99] The researchers concluded that interventions are "most successful when participants know about, endorse, and commit to the intervention."[99] The article provides support that when people enthusiastically take part in behavioral interventions, such as expression of optimism and gratitude, they may increase happiness and subjective well-being.
Another study examined the interaction effects between gratitude and humility through behavior interventions.[100] The interventions were writing a gratitude letter and writing a 14-day diary. In both interventions, the researchers found that gratitude and humility are connected and are "mutually reinforcing."[100] The study also discusses how gratitude, and its associated humility, may lead to more positive emotional states and subjective well-being.
A series of experiments showed a positive effect of awe on subjective well-being.[101] People who felt awe also reported feeling they had more time, more preference for experiential expenditures than material expenditures, and greater life satisfaction. Experiences that heighten awe may lead to higher levels of life satisfaction[102] and, in turn, higher levels of happiness and subjective well-being.
Mindfulness interventions may also increase subjective well-being in people who mindfully meditate.[103] Being mindful in meditation includes awareness and observation of one's meditation practice, with non-reactive and non-judgmental sentiments during meditation.
The creation of various nationalindices of happiness have expanded the field of positive psychology to a global scale.
In a January 2000 article inAmerican Psychologist, psychologist Ed Diener argued for the creation of a national happiness index in the United States.[104] Such an index could provide measurements of happiness, or subjective well-being, within the United States and across many other countries in the world. Diener argued that national indices would be helpful markers or indicators of population happiness, providing a sense of current ratings and a tracker of happiness across time. Diener proposed that the national index include various sub-measurements of subjective well-being, including "pleasant affect, unpleasant affect, life satisfaction, fulfillment, and more specific states such as stress, affection, trust, and joy."[104]
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In 2012, the firstWorld Happiness Report was published. The World Happiness Report was initiated by theUN General Assembly in June 2011, when it passed the Bhutanese Resolution.[105] The Bhutanese Resolution called for nations across the world to "give more importance to happiness and well-being in determining how to achieve and measure social and economic development."[105] The data for the World Happiness Reports is collected in partnership with theGallup World Poll's life evaluations and annual happiness rankings. The World Happiness Report bases its national rankings on how happy constituents believe themselves to be.
The first World Happiness Report, published in 2012, detailed the state of world happiness, the causes of happiness and misery, policy implications from happiness reports, and three case studies of subjective well-being for 1) Bhutan and itsGross National Happiness index, 2) the U.K.Office for National Statistics Experience, and 3) happiness in the member countries within theOECD.[106]
The 2020 World Happiness Report, the eighth in the series of reports, was the first to include happiness rankings of cities across the world, in addition to rankings of 156 countries. The city ofHelsinki, Finland was reported as the city with the highest subjective well-being ranking,[107] and the country of Finland was reported as the country with the highest subjective well-being ranking.[108] The 2020 report provided insights on happiness based on environmental conditions, social conditions, urban-rural happiness differentials, and sustainable development.[105] It also provided possible explanations for whyNordic countries have consistently ranked in the top ten happiest countries in the World Happiness Report, such as Nordic countries' high-quality government benefits and protections to its citizens, includingwelfare benefits and well-operated democratic institutions, as well as social connections, bonding, and trust.[109]
Additional national well-being indices and reported statistics include the Gallup Global Emotions Report,[110] Sharecare Community Well-Being Index,[111] Global Happiness Council's Global Happiness and Well-being Policy Report,[112]Happy Planet Index,[113]OECD Better Life Index,[114] and UNHuman Development Reports.[115]
Positive psychology influenced other academic fields of study and scholarship, notablyorganizational behavior,education, andpsychiatry.
Positive psychology has also informed psychotherapy by introducing structured interventions that extend beyond symptom reduction to promote resilience, meaning, and goal attainment. These approaches often use staged exercises, feedback loops, and experiential practices to foster sustainable well-being.[116]
Positive organizational scholarship (POS), also referred to aspositive organizational behavior (POB), began as an application of positive psychology to the field oforganizational behavior. An early use of the term was inPositive Organizational Scholarship: Foundations of a New Discipline (2003), edited byRoss School of Business professorsKim S. Cameron,Jane E. Dutton, andRobert E. Quinn.[117] The editors promote "the best of the human condition", such as goodness, compassion, resilience, and positive human potential, as an organizational goal as important as financial success.[117] The goal of POS is to study the factors that create positive work experiences and successful, people-oriented outcomes.
The 2011 volumeThe Oxford Handbook of Positive Organizational Scholarship, covers such topics as positive human resource practices, positive organizational practices, and positive leadership and change. It applies positive psychology to the workplace context, covering areas such as positive individual attributes, positive emotions, strengths and virtues, and positive relationships.[118] The editors of that volume define POS this way:
Positive organizational scholarship rigorously seeks to understand what represents the best of the human condition based on scholarly research and theory. Just as positive psychology focuses on exploring optimal individual psychological states rather than pathological ones, organizational scholarship focuses attention on the generative dynamics in organizations that lead to the development of human strength, foster resiliency in employees, enable healing and restoration, and cultivate extraordinary individual and organizational performance. POS emphasizes what elevates individuals and organizations (in addition to what challenges them), what goes right in organizations (in addition to what goes wrong), what is life-giving (in addition to what is problematic or life-depleting), what is experienced as good (in addition to what is objectionable), and what is inspiring (in addition to what is difficult or arduous).[119]
In organisational settings, positive psychology interventions have been used to improve employee engagement, foster resilience, and promote job satisfaction. These applications aim to build on employees' strengths, enhance meaning at work, and create a more fulfilling workplace environment.[120]
Positive psychology has been incorporated into a range of professional and academic settings. In education, programs based on positive psychology principles have been used to study student engagement, resilience, and academic performance.[121] Within workplaces, some organizations have implemented approaches that emphasize employee strengths and optimistic thinking, and research has examined links to job satisfaction, productivity, and burnout.[122] In clinical contexts, certain practitioners have integrated positive psychology concepts alongside traditional methods, with studies exploring potential effects on resilience and overall well-being among individuals with mental health challenges.[123] These examples reflect the broader use of positive psychology in multiple areas, as researchers continue to examine its practical applications and limitations.[124]
Positive psychology influenced psychiatry and led to more widespread promotion of practices including well-being therapy, positivepsychotherapy, and an integration of positive psychology intherapeutic practice.[125]
Benefits of positive influences can be seen in practices likepositive psychological interventions (PPIs). It is an intervention designed to promote positive outcomes by implying positive activities such as imposing adaptive personality traits to be praised and encouraged. Research has found that PPIs has the potential to improve medical and psychiatric disorders of individuals with depression[126][127] and suicidal levels.[128] Department of Developmental Services (DDS) did a research on a 52-year-old single gay man withbipolar II disorder andattention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) withlow self-esteem. In addition, there were other focuses of this research: promoting kindness behavior, identifying, and encouraging internal strengths to reach a fulfilling life.[129] PPIs increases the individuality's purpose with constant strengthen on personality traits and behavior positivity.
Psychoanalysis can be used to treat mental illnesses such asdepression as it focuses on identifying the conscious and unconscious motivations and behaviors affecting one's life. Treatment using psychoanalysis runs in a longer duration by practicingfree association to promote personal growth.[130]Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), a common type of psychotherapy, focuses on both psychoanalysis andbehavioral analysis: psychoanalysts focusing on conscious and unconscious motivations, behaviorists focusing on objectively measured behaviors. Therapy such as exposure therapy helps people with specific aspects of depression, or more specific cases likesocial phobia.[130]
Positive psychology may assist those recovering fromtraumatic brain injury (TBI).[131] TBI rehabilitation practices rely on bettering the patient's life by getting them to engage (or re-engage) in normal everyday practices, an idea which is related to tenets of positive psychology. While the empirical evidence for positive psychology is limited, positive psychology's focus on small successes, optimism, andprosocial behavior promises to improve the social and emotional well-being of TBI patients.
Positive psychology is a subject of popular books and films, and influences thewellness industry.
Severalpopular psychology books have been written for a general audience.
Ilona Boniwell'sPositive Psychology in a Nutshell provided a summary of the research. According to Boniwell, well-being is related to optimism,extraversion, social connections (i.e., close friendships), being married, having engaging work, religion or spirituality, leisure, good sleep and exercise, social class (through lifestyle differences and better coping methods), and subjective health (what you think about your health).[132] Boniwell writes that well-being is not related to age, physical attractiveness, money (once basic needs are met), gender (women are more often depressed but also more often joyful), educational level, having children, moving to a sunnier climate, crime prevention, housing, and objective health (what doctors say).
Sonja Lyubomirsky'sThe How of Happiness provides advice on how to improve happiness. According to this book, people should create new habits, seek out new emotions, use variety and timing to preventhedonic adaptation, and enlist others to support the creation of those new habits.[133] Lyubomirsky recommends twelve happiness activities, including savoring life, learning to forgive, and living in the present.
Stumbling on Happiness byDaniel Gilbert shares positive psychology research suggesting that people are often poor at predicting what will make them happy and that people are prone to misevaluating the causes of their happiness.[134] He notes that the subjectivity of well-being and happiness often is the most difficult challenge to overcome in predicting future happiness, as our future selves may have different perspectives on life than our current selves.
Thefilm industry noticed positive psychology, and films have spurred new research within positive psychology.
Happy is a full-length documentary film covering positive psychology andneuroscience. It highlights case studies on happiness across diverse cultures and geographies. The film features interviews with notable positive psychologists and scholars, includingGilbert,Diener,Lyubomirsky, andCsikszentmihalyi.[135]
For several years, thePositive Psychology News website included a section on Positive Psychology Movie Awards that highlighted feature films that featured messages of positive psychology.[136]
The VIA Institute has researched positive psychology as represented in feature films. Contemporary and popular films that promote or represent character strengths are the basis for various academic articles.[137]
In Positive Psychology at the Movies, Ryan Niemiec and Danny Wedding explore how mainstream films—ranging from Groundhog Day to The Pursuit of Happyness—illustrate character strengths, hope, and personal growth.[138]
The growing popularity and attention given to positive psychology research has influenced industry growth, development, and consumption of products and services meant to cater to wellness and well-being.
According to the Global Wellness Institute, as of 2023, the global wellness economy is valued atUS$6.3 trillion;[139] the key sectors of the industry included Nutrition, Personal Care and Beauty, and Physical activity, while the Mental wellness and Public health sectors accounted for approximatelyUS$1 billion.
Companies highlight happiness and well-being in their marketing strategies. Food and beverage companies such asCoca-Cola[140] andPocky—whose motto is "Share happiness!"[141]—emphasize happiness in their commercials, branding, and descriptions. CEOs at retail companies such as Zappos have profited by publishing books detailing how they deliver happiness,[142] while Amazon's logo features a dimpled smile.[143]
Many aspects of positive psychology have been criticized.
It has been suggested that positive psychology suffers from a persistent failure to properly acknowledge extensive prior work on optimal human functioning,[144] lacks proper theorizing and conceptual thinking, is problematic as far as measurements and methodologies are concerned, is seen as a pseudoscience that lacks evidence and has poor replication, lacks novelty, is self-isolated from mainstream psychology, and is a decontextualized neoliberalist ideology causing harm with capitalistic ventures.
In 1988, psychologistsShelley E. Taylor and Jonathan D. Brown co-authored aPsychological Bulletin article that coined the phrasepositive illusions.[145] Positive illusions are thecognitive processes people engage in when theyself-aggrandize orself-enhance. They are unrealistically positive or self-affirming attitudes that individuals hold about themselves, their position, or their environment. They are attitudes of extreme optimism that endure in the face of facts and real conditions.
Taylor and Brown suggest that positive illusions protect people from negative feedback that they might receive, and this, in turn, preserves theirpsychological adaptation and subjective well-being. However, later research found that positive illusions and related attitudes lead to psychologicalmaladaptive conditions such as poorer social relationships, expressions ofnarcissism, and negative workplace outcomes,[146] thus reducing the positive effects that positive illusions have on subjective well-being, overall happiness, and life satisfaction.
Kirk Schneider, editor of theJournal of Humanistic Psychology, pointed to research showing high positivity correlates with positive illusion, which distorts reality. High positivity orflourishing could make one incapable of psychological growth, unable to self-reflect, and prone to holding racial biases. By contrast, negativity, sometimes evidenced in mild to moderate depression, is correlated with less distortion of reality. Therefore, Schneider argues, negativity might play an important role: engaging in conflict and acknowledging appropriate negativity, including certain negative emotions like guilt, might better promote flourishing. Schneider wrote: "perhaps genuine happiness is not something you aim at, but is... a by-product of a life well lived—and a life well lived does not settle on the programmed or neatly calibrated."[147]
Barbara S. Held, a professor atBowdoin College, argues that positive psychology has faults: negative side effects, negativity within the positive psychology movement, and the division in the field of psychology caused by differing opinions of psychologists on positive psychology. She notes the movement's lack of consistency regarding the role of negativity. She also raises issues with the simplistic approach taken by some psychologists in the application of positive psychology. A "one size fits all" approach is arguably not beneficial; she suggests a need for individual differences to be incorporated into its application.[148] By teaching young people that being confident and optimistic leads to success, when they are unsuccessful they may believe this is because they are insecure or pessimistic. This could lead them to believe that any negative internal thought or feeling they may experience is damaging to their happiness and should be steered clear of completely.[149]
Held prefers the Second Wave Positive Psychology message of embracing the dialectic nature of positive and negative, and questions the need to call it "positive" psychology.[148]
One critical response to positive psychology concerns "toxic positivity".[151] Toxic positivity is when people do not fully acknowledge, process, or manage the entire spectrum of human emotion, including anger and sadness.[152] This genre of criticism argues that positive psychology places too much importance on "upbeat thinking, while shunting challenging and difficult experiences to the side."[153] People who engage in a constant chase for positive experiences or states of high subjective well-being may inadvertentlystigmatize negative emotional conditions such asdepression, or may suppress natural emotional responses, such assadness,regret, orstress. Furthermore, by not allowing negative emotional states to be experienced, or by suppressing and hiding negative emotional responses, people may experience harmful physical,cardiovascular, andrespiratory consequences.[154] Opponents of toxic positivity advocate accepting and fully experiencing negative emotional states.
Richard Lazarus critiqued positive psychology's methodological and philosophical components. He held that giving more detail and insight into the positive is not bad, but not at the expense of the negative, because the two (positive and negative) are inseparable. Among his critiques:
Lazarus held that positive psychology claims to be new and innovative but the majority of research on stress and coping theory makes many of the same claims as positive psychology. The movement attempts to uplift and reinforce the positive aspects of one's life, but everyone in life experiences stress and hardship. Coping through these events should not be regarded as adapting to failures but as successfully navigating stress, but the movement doesn't hold that perspective.
Another critique of positive psychology is that it has been developed from a Eurocentric worldview.Intersectionality has become a methodological concern regarding studies within Positive Psychology.[156]
A literature review conducted in 2022 noted several criticisms of the area, including lack of conceptual thinking, problematic measurements, poor replication of results, self-isolation from mainstream psychology, decontextualization, and being used for capitalism.[157]
In 2003, Ian Sample noted that "Positive psychologists also stand accused of burying their heads in the sand and ignoring that depressed, even merely unhappy people, have real problems that need dealing with."[158] He quoted Steven Wolin, aclinical psychiatrist atGeorge Washington University, as saying that the study of positive psychology is just a reiteration of older ways of thinking, and that there is not much scientific research to support the efficacy of this method.
Psychological researcher Shelly Gable retorts that positive psychology is just bringing a balance to a side of psychology that is glaringly understudied. She points to imbalances favoring research into negative psychological well-being incognitive psychology,health psychology, andsocial psychology.[158]
Psychologist Jack Martin maintains that positive psychology is not unique in its optimistic approach to emotional well-being, stating that other forms of psychology, such as counseling andeducational psychology, are also interested in positive human fulfillment.[159] He says while positive psychology pushes for schools to be more student-centered and able to foster positive self-images in children, a lack of focus on self-control may prevent children from making full contributions to society. If positive psychology is not implemented correctly, it can cause more harm than good. This is the case, for example, when interventions in school are coercive (in the sense of being imposed on everyone without regard for the child's reason for negativity) and fail to take each student's context into account.[149]
TheComprehensive Soldier Fitness (CSF) program was established in 2008 by then-Chief of Staff of the United States Army,GeneralGeorge W. Casey, Jr., in an effort to address increasing rates of drug abuse, family violence,PTSD, and suicide among soldiers. The Army contracted with Seligman's Positive Psychology Center at theUniversity of Pennsylvania to supply a program based on the center's Penn Resiliency Program, which was designed for 10- to 14-year-old children.[160] Although Seligman proposed starting with a small-scale pilot-test, General Casey insisted on immediately rolling out the CSF to the entire Army.[161] Interviewed for the journalMonitor on Psychology of theAmerican Psychological Association, Seligman said that "This is the largest study—1.1 million soldiers—psychology has ever been involved in."[162] According to journalist Jesse Singal, "It would become one of the largest mental-health interventions geared at a single population in the history of humanity, and possibly the most expensive."[160]
Some psychologists criticized the CSF for various reasons. Nicholas J.L. Brown wrote: "The idea that techniques that have demonstrated, at best, marginal effects in reducing depressive symptoms in school-age children could also prevent the onset of a condition that is associated with some of the most extreme situations with which humans can be confronted is a remarkable one that does not seem to be backed up by empirical evidence."[163]Stephen Soldz of theBoston Graduate School of Psychoanalysis cited Seligman's acknowledgment that the CSF is a gigantic study rather than a program based on proven techniques, and questioned the ethics of requiring soldiers to participate in research without informed consent.[164] Soldz also criticized the CSF training for trying to build up-beat attitudes toward combat: "Might soldiers who have been trained to resiliently view combat as a growth opportunity be more likely to ignore or under-estimate real dangers, thereby placing themselves, their comrades, or civilians at heightened risk of harm?"[164]
In 2021 theChronicle of Higher Education carried a debate between Singal and Seligman about whether, with the CSF well into its second decade, there was any solid evidence of its effectiveness. Singal cited studies that, he said, failed to find any measurable benefits from such positive psychology techniques, and he criticized the Army's own reports as methodologically unsound and lacking peer review.[160][165] Seligman said that Singal had misinterpreted the studies and ignored the Army's positive feedback from soldiers, one of whom told Seligman that "if I had had this training years ago, it would have saved my marriage."[166]
Positive psychology has historically been critiqued for its lack of demographic diversity, both in terms of its research populations and its theoretical frameworks. Much of the early research in positive psychology was conducted predominantly with Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) populations, leading to concerns about the generalizability of its findings across different demographic groups.[167] Recent studies have highlighted the need for more inclusive research that encompasses a broader range of cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds to ensure that positive psychology interventions are applicable and effective for diverse populations.
The concept of cultural sensitivity is crucial for positive psychology, yet it has faced criticism for insufficient consideration of cultural contexts. Positive psychology's principles, such as subjective well-being and character strengths, may not universally apply or be valued equally across all cultures. For instance, in collectivist cultures, individuals prioritize collective well-being over individual happiness, and thus, frameworks like the PERMA model may need adaptation to reflect these values. Additionally, there is a call for more cross-cultural research to validate the applicability of positive psychology interventions globally and to integrate culturally relevant practices and perspectives.[168]
Accessibility issues are a significant concern within positive psychology. Interventions and practices derived from positive psychology may not be equally accessible to all populations, particularly those from marginalized or lower socioeconomic backgrounds. There is evidence that socioeconomic factors can impact the effectiveness and availability of positive psychology interventions, potentially exacerbating existing inequalities.[169] To address these gaps, there is a growing emphasis on developing and implementing positive psychology practices that are affordable and accessible to diverse communities, including those with limited resources.[170]
Positive psychology continues to evolve with ongoing research and practical applications expanding its scope and impact. Cross-cultural research is essential to explore how positive psychology practices perform across different cultural settings and to refine interventions for global application.[171][168] Some researchers have written thataddressing criticisms related to methodological rigor, theoretical clarity, and practical applicability should be a priority, with a focus on enhancing the robustness of positive psychology research methodologies, improving the replicability of findings, and addressing the critiques related to the movement's focus and applicability.[172]
... Amongst psychologists... the importance of promoting health rather than simply preventing ill-health date back to the 1950s
The science of psychology has been far more successful on the negative than on the positive side. It has revealed to us much about man's shortcomings, his illness, his sins, but little about his potentialities, his virtues, his achievable aspirations, or his full psychological height. It is as if psychology has voluntarily restricted itself to only half its rightful jurisdiction, the darker, meaner half.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)Pocky is about sharing happiness with friends, family, coworkers...
Morris, B.; Thornton, C.; Neave, N.; Allen, G. (2025). "Understanding the Use of Superstitious Rituals in Sports People".Journal of Sports Sciences.43 (18):2046–2057.doi:10.1080/02640414.2025.2532994.PMID 40665537.
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