Poseidon greeting Theseus (on the right). Detail, Attic red-figured calyx-krater by Syriscos Painter, 450-500BC from Agrigento.BnF Museum (Cabinet des médailles), Paris
Poseidon (/pəˈsaɪdən,pɒ-,poʊ-/;[1]Ancient Greek:Ποσειδῶν) is one of thetwelve Olympians inancient Greek religion andmythology, presiding over the sea, storms, earthquakes and horses.[2] He was the protector of seafarers and the guardian of many Hellenic cities and colonies. In pre-OlympianBronze Age Greece, Poseidon was venerated as a chief deity atPylos andThebes, with the cult title "earth shaker";[2] in the myths of isolatedArcadia, he is related toDemeter andPersephone and was venerated as a horse, and as a god of the waters.[3] Poseidon maintained both associations among most Greeks: he was regarded as the tamer or father of horses,[2] who, with a strike of his trident, created springs (the terms for horses and springs are related in the Greek language).[4] HisRoman equivalent isNeptune.
Homer andHesiod suggest that Poseidon became lord of the sea when, following the overthrow of his fatherCronus, the world was dividedby lot among Cronus' three sons; Zeus was given the sky, Hades the underworld, and Poseidon the sea, with the Earth and Mount Olympus belonging to all three.[2][5] InHomer'sIliad, Poseidon supports the Greeks against the Trojans during theTrojan War; in theOdyssey, during the sea-voyage from Troy back home toIthaca, the Greek heroOdysseus provokes Poseidon's fury by blinding his son, theCyclopsPolyphemus, resulting in Poseidon punishing him with storms, causing the complete loss of his ship and companions, and delaying his return by ten years. Poseidon is also the subject of aHomeric hymn. InPlato'sTimaeus andCritias, the legendary island ofAtlantis was Poseidon's domain.[6][7][8]
Poseidon is famous for his contests with other deities for winning the patronage of the city. According to legend, Athena became the patron goddess of the city ofAthens after a competition with Poseidon, though he remained on theAcropolis in the form of his surrogate,Erechtheus. After the fight, Poseidon sent a monstrous flood to theAttic plain to punish the Athenians for not choosing him.[9] In similar competitions with other deities in different cities, he causes devastating floods when he loses. Poseidon is a horrifying and avenging god and must be honoured even when he is not the patron deity of the city.[10]
Some scholars suggested that Poseidon was probably aPelasgian god[11] or a god of theMinyans.[12] However it is possible that Poseidon, likeZeus, was a common god of allGreeks from the beginning.[13]
Etymology
The earliest attested occurrence of the name, written inLinear B, is𐀡𐀮𐀅𐀃Po-se-da-o or𐀡𐀮𐀅𐀺𐀚Po-se-da-wo-ne,[14] which correspond toΠοσειδάων (Poseidaōn) andΠοσειδάϝoνος (Poseidawοnos) inMycenean Greek; inHomeric Greek, it appears asΠοσιδάων (Posidaōn); inAeolic, asΠοτε(ι)δάων (Pote(i)daōn); inDoric, asΠοτειδάν (Poteidan) andΠοτειδᾶς (Poteidas); inArcadic, asΠοσoιδᾱν (Posoidan). In inscriptions withLaconic style fromTainaron,Helos andThuria asΠοὁιδάν (Pohoidan), indicating that theDorians took the name from the older population.[15] The formΠοτειδάϝων (Poteidawōn) appears in Corinth.[16]
The origins of the name "Poseidon" are unclear and the possible etymologies are contradictive among the scholars. One theory breaks it down into an element meaning "husband" or "lord" (Greekπόσις (posis), fromPIE*pótis) and another element meaning "earth"(δᾶ (da), Doric forγῆ (gē)), producing something like lord or spouse ofDa, i.e. of the earth; this would link him withDemeter, "Earth-mother".[17]Burkert finds that "the second elementδᾶ- remains hopelessly ambiguous" and finds a "husband of Earth" reading "quite impossible to prove".[2] According toBeekes inEtymological Dictionary of Greek, "there is no indication thatδᾶ means 'earth'",[18] although the rootda appears in theLinear B inscriptionE-ne-si-da-o-ne, "earth-shaker".[2][19]
Another theory interprets the second element as related to the (presumed) Doric word *δᾶϝονdâwon, "water", Proto-Indo-European*dah₂- "water" or*dʰenh₂- "to run, flow", Sanskrit दन्dā́-nu- "fluid, drop, dew" and names of rivers such asDanube (<*Danuvius) orDon. This would make *Posei-dawōn into the master of waters.[20][15]
Plato in his dialogueCratylus gives two traditional etymologies: either the sea restrained Poseidon when walking as a "foot-bond" (ποσίδεσμον), or he "knew many things" (πολλά εἰδότος or πολλά εἰδῶν).[21]
Beekes suggests that the word has probably aPre-Greek origin.[22] The original form was probably theMycenean GreekΠοτ(σ)ειδάϝων (Pot(s)eidawōn). "The inervocalic aspiration suggests a Pre Greek (Pelasgian) origin rather than an Indoeuropean one".[23]
Bronze Age Greece
Linear B (Mycenean Greek) inscriptions
If surviving Linear Bclay tablets can be trusted, the namespo-se-da-wo-ne andPo-se-da-o ("Poseidon")[14] occur with greater frequency than doesdi-u-ja ("Zeus"). A feminine variant,po-se-de-ia, is also found, indicating a lost consort goddess, in effect the precursor ofAmphitrite.[original research?]
Poseidon was the chief god atPylos. The titlewa-na-ka appears in the inscriptions. Poseidon was identified withwanax from theHomeric era to classical Greece. (anax). The title didn't mean only king, but also protector.Wanax had chthonic aspects, and he was closely associated with Poseidon, who had the title "Lord of the Underworld". The chthonic nature of Poseidon is also indicated by his titleE-ne-si-da-o-ne (Earth-shaker) in MyceneanKnossos andPylos. ThroughHomer the epithet was also used in classical Greece. (ennosigaios, ennosidas).[24]
Po-tini-ja (potnia: lady or mistress) was the chief goddess atPylos and she was closely associated with Poseidon. She was the Mycenean goddess of nature and Poseidon—Wanax is one from the gods who may be considered her "male paredros". Theearth shaker received offerings in the cave of the goddess of childbirthEileithyia atAmnisos inCrete. Poseidon is allied withPotnia and the divine child.[25]
Wa-na-ssa (anassa:queen or lady) appears in the inscriptions usually in plural. (Wa-na-ssoi). The dual number is common inIndoeuropean grammar (usually for chthonic deities like theErinyes) and the duality was used forDemeter andPersephone in classical Greece (the double named goddesses).[26][27]Potnia andwanassa refer to identical deities or two aspects of the same deity.[24]
E-ri-nu (Erinys) is attested in the inscriptions.[28] In some ancient cultsErinys is related to Poseidon and her name is an epithet ofDemeter.[29]
It is possible that Demeter appears asDa-ma-te in a Linear B inscription (PN EN 609), however the interpretation is still under dispute.[30][31]Si-toPo-tini-ja is probably related with Demeter as goddess of grain.[32]
Tablets from Pylos record sacrificial goods destined for "the Two ladies and the Lord" (or "to the Two Queens and the King":wa-na-soi,wa-na-ka-te).Wa-na-ssoi may be related withDemeter andPersephone, or their precursors, goddesses who were not associated with Poseidon in later periods.[33][27]
Mycenean cult
During theMycenean period, the ancestral male gods of the Myceneans were probably not represented in human forms, and the information given by the tablets found atPylos andKnossos is insufficient.[32] Poseidon was the chief deity atPylos andThebes. He is identified withAnax and he carried the title "Master of the Underworld".[citation needed] Anax had probably a cult associated with the protection of the palace.[24] InAcrocorinth he was worshipped asPoseidon Anax during the Mycenean age.[34] In the city there was the famous springPeirene which in a myth is related to the winged horsePegasus.[35] InAttica there was a cult ofAnax heroes who was connected to Poseidon.[34] A cult title of Poseidon was "earth-shaker" and inKnossos he was worshipped together with the goddessEleithyia who was related to the annual birth of the divine child.[34]Potnia was the Mycenean goddess of nature and she was the consort of Poseidon at Pylos. She is mentioned together withbucrania in decorated jugs and he was associated with the animals and especially to the bull.[24] In Athens Poseidon was an inland god who created the salt-seaErecthēιs (Ερεχθηίς), "sea of Erechtheus". In Acropolis his cult was superimposed on the cult of the local ancestral figureErechtheus.[2] In Athens andAsine he was worshipped in the house of the king during the Mycenean period.[35] The bull was the favourite animal for sacrifices and it seems that horses were rarely used during the burial of the Mycenean leaders.[32]
In theArcadian myths, Poseidon is related toDemeter andDespoina (another name ofKore- Persephone) and he was worshipped with the surnameHippios in many Arcadian cities.[10] AtThelpusa andPhigalia there were sister worships which are very important for the study of primitive religions. In these cults Demeter and Poseidon were chthonic divinities of the underworld.[29]
NearThelpusa the riverLadon descended to the sunctuary of DemeterErinys (Demeter-Fury). During her wandering in search of her daughter Demeter changed into a mare to avoid Poseidon. Poseidon took the form of a stallion and after their mating she gave birth to a daughter whose name was not allowed to be told to the unitiated and a horse calledArion (very swift). Her daughter obviously had the shape of a mare too. At first Demeter became angry and she was given the surnameErinys (fury) by the Thelpusians.[29][10] TheErinyes were deities of vangeance, andErinys had a similar function with the goddessDike (Justice).[36] In the very old myth of Thelpusa Demeter-Erinys and Poseidon are divinities of the underworld in a pre-mythic period. Poseidon appears as a horse. InGreek folklore the horses had chthonic associations and it was believed that they could create springs.[10] InEuropean folklore the water-creatures or water-spirits appear with the shape of a horse or a bull. In Greece the river godAcheloos is represented like a bull or a man-bull.[37] Many people when sacrificed to Demeter should make a premilinary sacrifice to Acheloos[29]
AtPhigalia Demeter had a sanctuary in a cavern and she was given the surnameMelaina (black). The goddess was related to the black undeworld. In a similar myth Poseidon appears as horse and Demeter gives birth to a daughter whose name was not allowed to be told to the unitiated (AtLycosura her daughter was calledDespoina). Demeter angry with Poseidon put on a black dressing and shut herself in the cavern. When the fruits of the earth were perished,Zeus sent theMoirai to Demeter who listened to them and led aside her wrath. In this cult we have traces of a very old cult of Demeter and Poseidon as deities of the underworld.[29]
Statue of Poseidon in Germany by Johann David Räntz and Lorenz Wilhelm Räntz (1760).
In another Arcadian myth whenRhea had given birth to Poseidon, she toldCronus that she had given birth to a horse, and gave him a foal to swallow instead of the child.[10][38] In theHomeric Hymn Demeter puts a dark mourning robe around her shoulders as a sign of her sorrow.[29] Demeter's mare-form was worshipped into historical times. Thexoanon ofMelainaat Phigalia shows how the local cult interpreted her, as goddess of nature. AMedusa type with a horse's head with snaky hair, holding a dove and a dolphin, probably representing her power over air and water.[39]
Boeotian myths
The myth of Poseidon appearing as a horse and mating with Demeter was not localized in Arcadia. AtHaliartos inBoeotia nearThebes Poseidon appears as stallion. He mates withErinys near the spring ofTilpousa and she gives birth to the faboulous horseArion.[10] At Tilpusa we have a very old cult of the chthonic deitiesErinys and Poseidon. The water-god Poseidon[40] appears as a horse which seems to represent the water-spirit[37] andErinys is probably the personification of a revenging earth-spirit.[41][36] From earlier times atDelphi Poseidon was joined in a religious union with the earth-goddessGe. She is represented as a snake which is a form of the earth-spirit.[40]
In theTheogony ofHesiod Poseidon once slept with the monstrousMedousa near the mountainHelikon. She conceived the winged horsePegasus who sprang out of her body when Perseus cut off her head. Pegasus stuck the ground with his hoof and created the famous springHippocrene near Helikon.[10]
Praxidicai were female deities of judicial punishment worshipped in the region of Haliartos in the historical times. Ttheir origin is probably the same withErinys. Their images depicted only the heads of the goddesses probably a representation of the earth goddess emerging from the ground.[29]Praxidice is and epithet ofPersephone in theOrphic Hymn. Persephone is sometimes depicted with her head emerging from the ground.[42][43]
Origins
Colossal-type statue of Poseidon-Neptune, probably sculpted in a workshop in Aphrodisias (Asia Minor). It was atPalaemon's sanctuary inIsthmia, where it was described by Pausanias.Prado Museum, Madrid
During theMycenean period Poseidon was worshipped in several regions in Greece. AtPylos and some other cities he was a god of the underworld (Lord of the Underworld) and his cult was related to the protection of the palace. He carried the titleanax, king or protector. His consortpotnia, lady or mistress, was the Mycenean goddess of nature. Her main aspects were birth and vegetation.[24] Poseidon had the title "Enesidaon" (earth-shaker) and inCrete he was associated with the goddess of childbirthEleithyia. ThroughHomer theMycenean titles were also used in classical Greece with similar meaning. He was identified withanax and he carried the epithets "Ennosigaios" and "Ennosidas" (earth-shaker).Potnia was a title which accompanied female goddesses.[44] The goddess of nature survived in theEleusinian cult, where the following words were uttered: "Mighty Potnia bore a strong son".[45] In the heavily sea-dependent Mycenaean culture, there is not sufficient evidence that Poseidon was connected with the sea; it is unclear whether "Posedeia" was a sea-goddess. The Greeks invaders came from far inland and they were not familiarized with the sea.[46]
In the primitiveBoeotian andArcadian myths Poseidon, the god of the underworld, appears as a horse and he is mating with the earth goddess.[40] The earth goddess is calledErinys orDemeter and she gives birth to the fabulous horseArion and the unnamed daughterDespoina, which is another name ofPersephone.[10] The horse represents the divine spirit (numen) and is related to the liquid element and the underworld.[47] In Greek folklore the horse is associated with the underworld and it was believed that it had the ability to create springs.[10] In theEuropean folklore the water-spirit appears with the shape of a horse or a bull. In Greece the river godAcheloos is represented as a bull or a man-bull.[37]Burkert suggests that theHellenic cult of Poseidon as a horse god may be connected to the introduction of the horse and war-chariot from Anatolia to Greece around 1600 BC.[2]
In the Boeotian myth Poseidon is the water-god andErinys is a goddess of the underworld.[40]She is probably the personification of a revenging earth spirit[41][48] and it seems that she had a similar function with the goddessDike (Justice).[36] At the spring "Tilpousa" she gives birth to Arion. In the Arcadian myth PoseidonHippios (horse) is mating with the mare-Demeter. AtThelpousaDemeter-Erinys gives birth to Arion and to an unnamable daughter who has the shape of a mare. In some neighbour cults the daughter was calledDespoina (mistress), which is another name ofPersephone.[10] The theriomorphic form of gods seems to be local in Arcadia in an old religion associated withxoana.[26]
From left to right: Poseidon, Dionysos, Zeus. Black figured neck-amphora, 540 BC.National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen
According to some theories Poseidon was aPelasgian god or a god of theMinyans. Traditionally the Minyans are considered Pelasgians and they lived inThessaly andBoeotia. In Thessaly (Pelasgiotis) there was a close relation to the horses. Poseidon created the first horseSkyphios hitting a rock with his trident and managed in the same way to drain the valley of Tempe.[13] The Thessalians were famous charioteers.[49] Some of the oldest Greek myths appear in Boeotia. In ancient cults Poseidon was worshipped as a horse. The horse Arion was a sire of Poseidon-horse withErinys and the winged horsePegasus a sire of Poseidon foaled by Medousa.[10] AtOnchestos he had an old famous festival which included horseracing.[10] However it is possible that Poseidon likeZeus was a common god of all Greeks from the beginning.[13]
It is possible that the Greeks did not bring with them other gods except Zeus,Eos, and theDioskouroi.[47] The Pelasgian god probably represented the fertilising power of water, and then he was he was considered god of the sea. As the sea encircles and holds the earth in its position, Poseidon is the god who holds the earth and who has the ability to shake the earth.[50] The primeval water who encircled the earth (Oceanus) is the origin of all rivers and springs. They are children of Oceanus andTethys.[35]
Farnell suggested that Poseidon was originally the god of the Minyans who occupied Thessaly and Boeotia. There is a similarity between the Boeotian and Arcadian myths and especially between the myths which represent the god of the waters Poseidon as a horse.[40] The mythical horse Arion appears in both regions. The offspring of Poseidon winged horse Pegasus creates famous springs nearHelikon and atTroizen. Some springs of Poseidon have similar names in Boeotia andPeloponnese.[13][12] It is possible that the name of PoseidonHelikonios in Boeotia whose fest included horseracing derives from the mountainHelikon. TheMinyans had trade contacts with MyceneanPylos and theAchaeans adopted the cult of PoseidonHelikonios. The cult spread in Peloponnese and then toIonia when the Achaeans migrated toAsia Minor.[13][12]
Hermes, Dionysos, Ariadne and Poseidon (Amphitrite is depicted on side B.). Detail from the belly of an Attic red-figure hydria, ca. 510 BC–500 BC.Louvre, Paris
Nilsson suggested that Poseidon was probably a common god of all Greeks from the beginning. The Greeks occupied Thessaly, Boeotia and Peloponnese during the Bronze Age. In all these regions Poseidon was the god of the horses. The origin of his cult was Peloponnese and he was the inland god of the Achaeans, the god of the "horses" and the "earthquakes". When the Achaeans migrated toIonia there was a transition to regarding Poseidon as the god of the sea because the Ionians were sea-dependent.[35] With no doubt he was originally the god of the waters. The Greeks believed that the cause of the earthquakes was the erosion of the rocks by the waters, by the rivers in Peloponnese which they saw to disappear into the earth and then to burst out again. The god of the waters became the "earth-shaker".[35][51] This is what the natural philosophersThalesAnaximenes andAristotle believed and could not be different from the folk belief.[52] In the Greek legendsArethusa and the riverAlpheus traversed underground under the sea and reappeared atOrtygia.[53][54]
In any case, the early importance of Poseidon can still be glimpsed in Homer'sOdyssey, where Poseidon rather than Zeus is the major mover of events. In Homer, Poseidon is the master of the sea.[55] He is described as a majestic, scary, and avenging monarch of the sea.[46]
The worship of Poseidon was extended all over Greece and southernItaly, but he was specially honoured in Peloponnese which is called "the residence of Poseidon" and in theIonic cities.[11] The significance of his cult is indicated by the names of cities likePoteidaia in theChalkidiki peninsula andPoseidonia (Paestum), a Greek colony in Italy.[2]Poseidion is a frequent Greek placename along coastlines and the name of a Greek colony at theSyrian coast.[59]
InIonia his cult was introduced by Achaean colonists from Greece in the 11th century BC. Traditionally the colonists came fromPylos where Poseidon was the principal god of the city. The god had a famous temple near the mountainMycale.[2] The monthPoseidaon is the month of the winter-storms. The name of the month was used in Ionic territories, in Athens, in the islands of theAegean and in the cities of Asia Minor. AtLesbos andEpidauros the month was calledPoseidios. During this month Poseidon was worshipped as the "master of the sea" in a bright cult.[13]
Poseidon with trident on hippocamp (sea-horse). Athenian black-figure white-ground pottery lekythos ca. 500-480 BC, byAthena Painter.Ashmolean Museum, Oxford
Poseidon was a major civic god of several cities: inAthens, he was second only toAthena in importance, while inCorinth and many cities ofIonia andMagna Graecia he was the chief god of thepolis.[2] Many fests of Poseidon included athletic competitions and horseracing.In Corinth his cult was related to theIsthmian games.[2] InArcadia his cult was related to the games "Hippocrateia" and at Sparta he had a temple near anHippodrome. InOnchestos ofBoeotia horseracing was a part of the athletic games in honour of the god.[10][13]
Poseidon was considered a symbol of unity. ThePanionia the festival of all Ionians nearMycale were celebrated in honour of PoseidonHelikonios and was the place of meeting of theIonian League.[60][61] He was the patron god of theAmphictiony ofKalaureia. AtOnchestos ofBoeotia he was worshipped as PoseidonHelikonios. His sanctuary became the place of meeting of the secondBoeotian league.[13][62] AtHelike of Achaea there was the famous temple of PoseidonHelikonios, which was the place of meeting of theAchaean League.[63]
The "master of the sea" createsclouds and storms, but he is also the protector of the sailors. He has the ability to calm the sea for a good voyage and save those who are in danger.[11] He was worshipped with the surname "savior" as the protector of the seafarers and the fishermen.[56] He is the "earthshaker", however he is also the protector against the earthquakes. In some cults he was worshipped as the "bringer of safety" or "protector of the house and the foundations".[13]
The god was considered the creator of the first horse, and it was believed that he taught men the art of taming horses. He was depicted on horseback, or riding in a chariot drawn by two or four horses.[11] He had a lot of temples in Arcadia, with the surnameHippios (of the horse) and he was also transformed into a horse to seduceDemeter.[13]
Poseidon with a trident and a fish. Tondo of an Attic red-figured kylix, 520-510 BC, from Etruria.National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen.
Being the god of waters, Poseidon is related to the primeval water which encircles the earth (Oceanus),[11] who is the father of all rivers and springs. He can create springs with the strike of his trident.[2] He was worshipped as "ruler of the springs" and "leader of the nymphs"[64] In Thessaly it was believed that he drained the area cutting the rocks ofTempe with his trident.[2][65] In Greek folklore the horse can also create springs .[10]
As god of the sea Poseidon was also god of fishing and especially of sea-fishing. Tuna was offered to him by the fishermen during the festal meal for the protection of the nets .[2] Tuna and later dolphin was his attribute. He was worshipped in many islands and cities by the coast. AtCorcyra a roaring bull near the sea-shore quaranteed a good fishing.[66] The devastating storm of Poseidon is related to fishermen and they poured drink offerings to Poseidon -savior into the sea.[56] The god of inland waters is very close to vegetation and Poseidon was worshipped in many cities as god of vegetation.Haloa in Athens was a fest of vegetation. TheProtrygaia, a wine-fest seem to belong toDionysus and Poseidon.[66]
In several cities Poseidon was worshipped in relation to the genealogy and thephratry.[2] AtTinos he was worshipped as a healer-god, probably a forerunner of the famousEvangelistria.[66]
The bull is related to Poseidon mainly in Ionia. The sacrifice of a bull offered to Poseidon is mentioned byHomer in an Ionic festival (Panionia).[67][66] The sacrifices offered to Poseidon consisted of black and white bulls which were killed or thrown into the sea. Boars and rams were also used and inArgolis horses were thrown into a well as a sacrifice to him.[68][11]
Gigantomachy scene: Poseidon fighting Polybotes. Tondo of an Attic red-figure kylix, ca. 475-470 BC. Painter of the Paris Gigantomachy (eponymous vase), circle of theBrygos Painter found in VulciBnF Museum (Cabinet des médailles), Paris
In his benign aspect, Poseidon was seen as creating new islands and offering calm seas. When offended or ignored, he supposedly struck the ground with histrident and caused chaotic springs,earthquakes, drownings andshipwrecks.Sailors prayed to Poseidon for a safe voyage, sometimes drowning horses as a sacrifice; in this way, according to a fragmentarypapyrus,Alexander the Great paused at the Syrian seashore before the climacticbattle of Issus, and resorted to prayers, "invoking Poseidon the sea-god, for whom he ordered afour-horse chariot to be cast into the waves".[69]
According toPausanias, Poseidon was one of the caretakers of theoracle at Delphi before OlympianApollo took it over. Apollo and Poseidon worked closely in many realms: in colonization, for example, Delphic Apollo provided the authorization to go out and settle, while Poseidon watched over the colonists on their way, and provided thelustral water for the foundation-sacrifice. At one time Delphi belonged to him in common with Ge, but Apollo gave him the psychopompeionKalaureia as a compensation for it.[11][70]
Xenophon'sAnabasis describes a group ofSpartan soldiers in 400–399 BC singing to Poseidon apaean—a kind of hymn normally sung for Apollo. LikeDionysus, who inflamed themaenads, Poseidon also caused certain forms of mental disturbance. AHippocratic text of ca 400 BC,On the Sacred Disease[71] says that he was blamed for certain types of epilepsy.
Poseidon is still worshipped today in modernHellenic religion, among other Greek gods. The worship of Greek gods has been recognized by the Greek government since 2017.[72][73]
Epithets and attributes
Poseidon Epoptes
Poseidon had a variety of roles, duties and attributes. He is a separate deity from the oldest Greek god of the seaPontus. In Athens his name is superimposed οn the name of the non-Greek godErechtheusἙρεχθεύς (Poseidon Erechtheus).[74][75] In theIliad, he is the lord of the sea and his golden palace is built in Aegai, in the depth of the sea.[76] His significance is indicated by his titlesEurykreion (Εὐρυκρείων) "wide-ruling", an epithet also applied toAgamemnon[77][78] andHelikonios anax (Ἑλικώνιος ἄναξ), "lord ofHelicon or Helike"[79] In Helike of Achaia he was specially honoured.[80]Anax is identified in Mycenaean Greek (Linear B) aswa-na-ka, a title of Poseidon as king of the underworld.Aeschylus uses also the epithetanax[81] andPindar the epithetEurymedon (Εὐρυμέδων) "widely ruling".[82]
Some of the epithets (or adjectives) applied to him likeEnosigaios (Ἐνοσίγαιος),Enosichthon (Ἐνοσίχθων) (Homer) andEnnosidas (Ἐννοσίδας) (Pindar), mean "earth shaker".[83] These epithets indicate hischthonic nature, and have an older evidence of use, as it is identified in Linear B, as𐀁𐀚𐀯𐀅𐀃𐀚,E-ne-si-da-o-ne.[84] Other epithets that relate him with the earthquakes areGaieochos (Γαιήοχος)[85] andSeisichthon (Σεισίχθων)[86]The god who causes the earthquakes is also the protector against them, and he had the epithetsThemeliouchos (Θεμελιούχος) "upholding the foundations",[87]Asphaleios (Ἀσφάλειος) "securer, protector"[88] with a temple atTainaron.[89] Pausanias describes a sanctuary of Poseidon near Sparta beside the shrine of Alcon, where he had the surnameDomatites (Δωματίτης), "of the house"[90][91]
Poseidon surprises Anymone near a spring. Attic pelike in red figure, circle of thePolygnotus Painter, 440-430 BC. Archaeological Museum ofAgrigento
Homer uses for Poseidon the titleKyanochaites (Κυανοχαίτης), "dark-haired, dark blue of the sea".[92][93] Epithets likePelagios (Πελάγιος) "of the open sea",[94][95]Aegeus (Αἰγαίος), "of the high sea"[96] in the town ofAegae inEuboea, where he had a magnificent temple upon a hill,[97][98][99]Pontomedon (Ποντομέδων),[100]" lord of the sea" (Pindar,Aeschylus) andKymothales (Κυμοθαλής), "abounding with waves",[101] indicate that Poseidon was regarded as holding sway over the sea.[102] Other epithets that relate him with the sea are,Porthmios (Πόρθμιος), "of strait, narrow sea" atKarpathos,[103]Epactaeus (Ἐπακταῖος) "god worshipped on the coast", inSamos,[104]Alidoupos, (Ἀλίδουπος) "sea resounding".[105] The master of the sea who can cause devastating storms is also the protector of seafarers and he was given the epithetsōtēr (Σωτήρ), "savior".[56]
His symbol is the trident and he has the epithetEutriaina (Εὐτρίαινα), "with goodly trident" (Pindar).[106] The god of the sea is also the god of fishing, andtuna was his attribute. AtLampsacus they offered fishes to Poseidon and he had the epithetphytalmios (φυτάλμιος)[107] His epithetPhykios (Φύκιος), "god of seaweeds" atMykonos,[108] seems to be related with fishing. He had a fest where women were not allowed, with special offers also toPoseidon Temenites (Τεμενίτης) "related to an official domain ".[109] At the same day they made offers toDemeter Chloe therefore Poseidon was the promotor of vegetation. He had the epithetphytalmios (φυτάλμιος) atMyconos,Troizen,Megara andRhodes, comparable withPtorthios (Πτόρθιος) atChalcis.[107][110][111]
Poseidon fighting the Giant Polybotes. Attic black-figure neck amphora bySwing Painter, 540-530 BC, ca. 540 BC–530 BC.Louvre, Paris.
Poseidon had a close association with horses. He is known under the epithetHippios (Ἵππειος), "of a horse or horses" usually in Arcadia. He had temples atLycosura,Mantineia,Methydrium,Pheneos, Pallandion.[112][113]
At Lycosura he is related with the cult of Despoina.[114] The modern sanctuary nearMantineia was built by EmperorHadrian.[115] In Athens on the hill of horses there was the altar of Poseidon Hippios andAthena Hippia. The temple of Poseidon was destroyed by Antigonus when he attacked Attica.[116] He is usually the tamer of horses (Damaios,Δαμαίος at Corinth),[117] and the tender of horsesHippokouriosἹπποκούριος) at Sparta, where he had a sanctuary near the sanctuary ofArtemis Aiginea.[118][119] In some myths he is the father of horses, either by spilling his seed upon a rock or by mating with a creature who then gave birth to the first horse.[2] In Thessaly he had the titlePetraiosΠετραἵος, "of the rocks".[120] He hit a rock and the first horse "Skyphios" appeared.[121] He was closely related with the springs, and with the strike of his trident, he created springs. He had the epithetsKrenouchos (Κρηνούχος), "ruling over springs",[122] andnymphagetes (Νυμφαγέτης) "leader of the nymphs"[123] On the Acropolis of Athens he created the saltspringSea of Erechtheus (Ἐρεχθηίς θάλασσα).[124] Many springs likeHippocrene and Aganippe in Helikon are related with the word horse (hippos). (also Glukippe, Hyperippe). He is the father of Pegasus, whose name is derived fromπηγή, (pēgē) "spring".[125]
Poseidon carrying a trident. Corinthian plate 550-525 BC, from Pentescouphia,Louvre
Epithets likeGenesiosΓενέσιος atLerna[126][127]Genethlios (Γενέθλιος) "of the race or family"[128]Phratrios (Φράτριος) "of the brotherhood",[129] andPatrigenios (Πατριγένειος)[130] indicate his relation with the genealogy trees and the brotherhood.
Other epithets of Poseidon in local cults areEpoptes (Ἐπόπτης), "overseer, watcher" at Megalopolis,[131]Empylios (Ἐμπύλιος), "at the gate " atThebes,[132]Kronios (Κρόνιος)[133] (Pindar) andsemnos (σεμνός), "august, holy"[134] (Sophocles).
Some of Poseidon's epithets are related to festivals and athletic games including racing. At Corinth theIsthmian games was an athletic and music festival in honour of the god who had the epithetIsthmios (Ἴσθμιος). At Sparta there was the racein Gaiaochō. (ἐν Γαιαόχῳ)[135][136] PoseidonGaiēochos (Γαιήοχος) had a temple near the city beside anHippodrome.[137] AtMantineia and Pallandion in Arcadia theHippokrateia (Ἱπποκράτεια) were athletic games in honour of PoseidonHippeios (Ιππειος). AtEphesus there was a fest "Tavria" and he had the epithetTaureios (Tαύρειος), "related with the bull".[138][136]
Festivals
Poseidon andNike (victory). Terracotta Attic amphora by the Syracuse Painter, one of the last to decorate an amphora, 470-460 BC.Metropolitan Museum of Art, Manhattan, NY
Many festivals all over Greece, in the Ionic cities and in Italy were celebrated in honour of Poseidon.
Corinth: ThePanhellenicIsthmian Games were celebrated in honour of Poseidon. His sanctuary is to be seen in the context of the position of Corinth controlling the sea.[2] The festival included athletic and musical competitions and horseracing. Traditionally the games were established in the Bronze Age over the dead princePalaimon.[139]
Athens: Poseidon had a fest in the monthPoseidaon. He was worshipped as the "master of the sea".[13]
Athens:Haloa was a fest of vegetation. The wine- festProtrygaia belonged toDionysus and to Poseidon as a god of vegetation.[66]
Mycale inIonia: Mycale was a promontory, betweenSamos andMiletus. The representatives of twelve cities (dodekapolis) celebrated thePanionia (of all the Ionians), a festival ofPoseidon Helikonios.[60] Traditionally the first settlers landed in this place. The temple became the meeting place of the Ionian League).[61] Homer describes the sacrifice of a bull to Poseidon, during the festival.[66]
Ephesus in Ionia. The relation of Poseidon with the bull is stronger in Ionia. The festTauria was celebrated in honour of PoseidonTaureios and the capbearers were calledtauroi (bulls).[66]
Kalaureia: Poseidon was the patron god of theAmphictiony of Kalaureia. The festival was celebrated in honour of the god. The famous temple was the meeting place of the representatives of the members (Amphiktiones).[140]
Tainaron: The famous festivalTainaria was celebrated in honour of Poseidon. The participants were calledTainarioi.[141] The sacred sanctuary of the god was built in a cave in the Tainaron peninsula.[142] A filial cult existed in Sparta.[13]
Libation scene: Poseidon seated on a chair, wearing a chiton and a himation, holding a trident and a phiale.450-440 BC red-figure Attic amphora.Louvre
Onchestos inBoeotia. Poseidon had a famous temple praised by Homer in theCatalogue of Ships,[62] with the surnameHelikonios. It became the place of meeting of the secondBoeotian league. The peculiar fest included horseracing.[13] At the beginning of the race the charioteers jumped down and made a prayer to Poseidon to protect them if the chariot would fall in the sacred grove.[10]
Sparta; Poseidon was worshipped with the surnameGaiaochos (carrying the earth or moving under the earth). There was the raceGaiaochoi and the temple was built beside anHippodrome.[13]
Epidauros: A fest in the monthPoseidios was celebrated in honour of Poseidon. He was worshipped as the "master of the sea".[13]
Helos : The festPohoidaia was celebrated in honour of Poseidon. The festival included athletic games and competitions.[13]
Thuria: The festPohoidaia was celebrated in honour of Poseidon. It included athletic games and competitions.[13]
Sozopol Archaeological Museum. Poseidon in the middle.
Mantineia in Arcadia: Poseidon was worshipped with the surnameHippios (of the horse). The fest included the athletic gamesHippokrateia. The temple was holy and the entrance into the cella was not allowed.[13]
Pallandion in Arcadia : Poseidon had the epithetHippios (of the horse) and the fest included the athletic gamesHippokrateia.[13]
Lesbos: A festival in the monthPoseidios was celebrated in honour of Poseidon. He was worshipped as the "master of the sea".[13]
Myconos: In a fest he was worshipped as a god of fishing and women were not allowed. Chloe (Demeter) received offerings in the same fest, indicating that Poseidon was also god of vegetation.[66]
Tinos: A great fest calledPoseidonia was celebrated in honour of Poseidon. The temple included great banquet halls, indicating the large number of the participants.[146] Poseidon was worshipped as a healer-god.[66]
Temples of Poseidon
Archaic Temple of Poseidon atIsthmia, Greece (Assumed reconstruction)
TheCorinthians are considered to be the inventors of theDoric order. However Corinth was completely destroyed and rebuilt and there is not sufficient evidence for the existence of earliestDoric Greek temples in the city.[147] A building constructed in early 7th century BC c.690-650 BC atIsthmia nearCorinth which was later dedicated to Poseidon, is considered a pioneering building featuring Doric architecture.[148] It seems that the first temple with pure Doric elements was built with the aid of Corinthians atThermon inAetolia in the middle of 7th century BC century. c.640-630 BC. It was aperipteral narrow wooden structure dedicated toApollo,[149] It measured 12.13 X38.23 m at thestylobate and the number ofpteron columns was 5X15.[150]
In the earlier temples theperipteral colonnade is treated with a freedom unknown to later Doric architects. This is in part an especially western feature (inItaly) because the hexastyle scheme was adopted[151] as in the temple of Poseidon atTaranto and the second temple ofHera atPaestum (traditionally named temple of Poseidon). In the earlier temples where the number of the columns in theporch is odd, so are the columns of thepteronfacade. In such temples the sideptera are approximately the width of one or twointercolumniations.[152] In the hexastyle scheme like the temple of Poseidon atSounion, there are normally two or four columns in the porch and the side ptera are approximately the width of one intercolumniation.[153] In Doric early work the distance between column and column differs on the fronts and on the flanks[154] and this can be observed in the temple of Poseidon atKalaureia and inBasilica atPaestum. After the 6th century the rule in Doric is an approximate equality of intercolumniations[154] and it can be observed in the temple of Poseidon atSounion, where there is a slight difference.
Isthmia. The temple dedicated later to the god Poseidon was probably built in early 7th century BC c.690-650 BC in the cityIsthmia nearCorinth and it had a woodenperistyle. The building was completely destroyed in 470 BC and it seems that it was one of the pioneering buildings featuring Doric architecture.[148] The ground plan showed a temple that was of epic proportions for its time and of a layout that was almost entirely new,[155] however there was no evidence for the employment of the Doric style as it was suggested[156]
Plan of the second temple ofHera,Paestum (traditionally temple of Poseidon)
Paestum, on the west coast ofItaly nearNaples. The Greek name of the city was Poseidonia. The Doric temple was built in the early 6th century BC and it was believed that it was a temple of Poseidon. Traditionally this name is associated with the 5th century BC temple at Paestum, however recent excavations indicate that both temples were dedicated toHera. The so-calledBasilica measured 24,5 X54,3 m at thestylobate and the number ofpteron columns was 9x18.[157] The temple is wider than most Greek temples it had two doors. This may indicate a dual dedication of the temple.[158]
A Doric temple the so-called temple of Poseidon was built in the first half of the 5th century BC and is usually placed later thanParthenon. The temple measured 24,3 X 60,00 m at thestylobate. It was an hexastyle structure and the number ofpteron columns was 6X14.[159] The temple was also used to worshipZeus and another deity, whose identity is unknown.
Taranto, a city ofMagna Graecia inItaly. Τhe temple of Poseidon was a perpiteralDoric temple, however its exact plan cannot be outlined. It was probably built in the 6th century BC and it seems that the number ofpteron columns was 6X13. The interval of the remaining columns is 3.72 m, indicating that the maximum dimensions of the temple at thestylobate could be 22,32X 47,46 m.
Sounion inAttica. The first temple of Poseidon (formerly called temple of Athena) was built in 490 BC and it was destroyed by the Persians before completion. It measured 13,12 X30,34 m at thestylobate and the number ofpteron columns was 6X13. There is a slight difference between the front and back intercolumniations and those of the flanks. There was probably a double row of inner columns. (close wall, engaged). Thecella with porches and adyta measured c.9.00 X21,20m[160]
The second temple was built in 425 BC and it was modelled on its predecessor. It measured 13.48 X 31.15 m at thestylobate and the number ofpteron columns was 6X13. AnIonic frieze carried across pteron and continued round interior of each end of pteron.[161] The cella with porches and adyta measured c.9.00 X21,20m.[160] The temple probably contained, at one end facing the entrance, a colossal, bronze statue of Poseidon.[162]
Architectural Terracotta Sanctuary of PoseidonKalaureia
Kalaureia, an island close to the coast ofTroezen in thePeloponnese, part of the modern island-pairPoros. Early roof tiles from c.650 BC suggest the existence of a precursor to the Late Archaic temple of Poseidon. This Doric temple was probably built in the middle of the 6th century BC, constructed mainly ofporos stone. It measured 14,50 X27,00 m at thestylobate and the number of the pteron columns was 6X12. Both front and back intercolumniations were wider than those on the flanks. The building was surrounded by a low wall with the main entrance on the east side.[163]
Hermione inArgolis.The most remarkable temple in the time of Pausanias was the temple of Poseidon.[164] The temple was built in the Late archaic-Early classical period, in the late 6th century BC. It was completely destroyed and its foundations at the peninsula ofBisti (Poseidio) indicate that the temple measured approximately 15,00 X30,00 m at thestylobate.[165]
Tainaron .The sacred sanctuary of Poseidon was built in a cave at the Tainaron peninsula. The path to the interior, carved into the rock, was preparing him who wanted to get into the psychopompeion. It also functioned as a necromancy and oneiromancy temple. The temple was also established as a place for persecuted who fled there for protection.[142]
Tinos, an island ofCyclades. The temple of Poseidon andAmphitrite was built near a beach of the island, in the 4th century BC (Hellenistic period). It was a peripteralDoric temple, which was reconstructed in the 3rd century BC. The temple was made of local marble and had some representations of the god's symbols, such as dolphins and the trident.[166]
Mythology
Birth
Poseidon-Neptune and triumphal chariot with a pair of sea-horses (Hippocamps). Mosaic, 3rd century.Sousse Archaeological Museum, Medina, Tunesia
In the standard version, Poseidon was born to theTitansCronus andRhea, the fifth child out of six, born afterHestia,Demeter,Hera andHades in that order.[167] Because Poseidon's father was afraid that one of his children would overthrow him like he had done to his own father, Cronus devoured each infant as soon as they were born. Poseidon was the last one to suffer this fate before Rhea decided to deceive Cronus and whisk the sixth child,Zeus, away to safety, after offering Cronus a rock wrapped in a blanket to eat.[168] Once Zeus was grown, he gave his father a powerful emetic that made him gorge up the children he had eaten. The five children emerged from their father's belly in reverse order, making Poseidon both the second youngest child and the second oldest at the same time. Armed with a trident forged for him by theCyclopes, Poseidon with his siblings and other divine allies defeated the Titans and became rulers in their place.[169] According toHomer and Apollodorus, Zeus, Poseidon and the third brotherHades then divided the world between them by drawing lots; Zeus got the sky, Poseidon the sea, and Hades the Underworld.[170]
In a rarer - and later- version, Poseidon avoided being devoured by his father as his mother Rhea saved him in the same manner she did Zeus, by offering Cronus a foal instead, claiming she had given birth to a horse instead of a god, while she had actually laid the child in a flock.[171] Rhea entrusted her infant to a spring nymph. When Cronus demanded the child, the nymph Arne[172] denied having him, and her spring thereafter was calledArne (which bears resemblance to the Greek word for 'deny').[173]
In another tale, Rhea gave Poseidon to theTelchines, ancient inhabitants of the island ofRhodes;[174]Capheira, anOceanid nymph, became the young god's nurse.[175] As Poseidon grew, he fell in love withHalia, the beautiful sister of the Telchines, and fathered six sons and one daughter,Rhodos, on her.[176][175] By that timeAphrodite, the goddess of love, had been born and risen from the sea, and attempted to make a stop at Rhodes on her way toCyprus. Poseidon and Halia's sons denied her hospitality, so Aphrodite cursed them to fall in love and rape Halia. After they had done so, Poseidon made them sink below the sea.[176]
Poseidon (right) andAthena (identified with inscriptions). Black-figure vaise painting byAmasis Painter, 540 BC.BnF Museum (Cabinet des médailles), Paris
Athena became the patron goddess of the city ofAthens after a competition with Poseidon. Yet Poseidon remained anuminous presence on theAcropolis in the form of his surrogate,Erechtheus.[2] At the dissolution festival at the end of the year in the Athenian calendar, theSkira, the priests of Athena and the priest of Poseidon would processunder canopies toEleusis.[178] They agreed that each would give the Athenians one gift and the Athenians would choose whichever gift they preferred. Poseidon struck the ground with his trident and a spring sprang up; the water was salty and not very useful, whereas Athena offered them anolive tree.
The Athenians or their king,Cecrops, accepted the olive tree and along with it Athena as their patron, for the olive tree broughtwood,oil and food. After the fight, infuriated at his loss, Poseidon sent a monstrous flood to the Attic Plain, to punish the Athenians for not choosing him. The depression made by Poseidon's trident and filled with salt water was surrounded by the northern hall of theErechtheum, remaining open to the air.
Athena and Poseidon, Faliscan red-figure volute-krater, by Nazzano Painter, 360 BC.Louvre, Paris.
Burkert noted :"Incult, Poseidon was identified with Erechtheus" and "the myth turns this into a temporal-causal sequence: in his anger at losing, Poseidon led his sonEumolpus against Athens and killed Erectheus."[9]
It was also said that Poseidon in his anger over his defeat sent one of his sons,Halirrhothius, to cut down Athena's tree gift. But as Halirrhothius swung his axe, he missed his aim and it fell in himself, killing him instantly. Poseidon in fury accused Ares of murder, and the matter was eventually settled on theAreopagus ("hill of Ares") in favour of Ares, which was thereafter named after the event.[179][180] In other versions, Halirrhothius rapedAlcippe, Ares's daughter, so Ares slew him. Poseidon was enraged over the murder of his son, and Ares was thus held in hold, which eventually acquitted him.[181]
The contest of Athena and Poseidon was the subject of the reliefs on thewestern pediment of theParthenon, the first sight that greeted the arriving visitor.
This myth is construed byRobert Graves and others as reflecting a clash between the inhabitants during Mycenaean times and newer immigrants. Athens at its height was a significant sea power, at one point defeating thePersian fleet atSalamis Island in a sea battle.
Others
Poseidon andAmymone, fresco inStabiae, Italy, 1st century AD
The Corinthians had a similar story to the foundations of Athens, about their own cityCorinth. According to the myth,Helios and Poseidon clashed, both desiring to make the city their own. Their dispute was brought to one of theHecatoncheires, Briareos, an elder god, who was thus tasked to settle the fight between the two gods. Briareus decided to award theAcrocorinth to Helios, while to Poseidon he gave theisthmus of Corinth.[182] In this tale, Helios and Poseidon are supposed to represent fire versus water.[183] Helios, as the sun god, received the area that is closest to the sky, while Poseidon, who is the sea god, got the isthmus by the sea.[184]
At another time, Poseidon came to an agreement with another goddess,Leto, that he would give her the island of Delos in exchange for the island ofCalauria; he also exchangedDelphi forTaenarum with Apollo. A temple of Poseidon stood at Calauria during ancient times.[185] Poseidon also came to dispute with his sister Hera over the city ofArgos. A local king was chosen to settle the matter,Phoroneus, and he decided to award the city to Hera, who then became its patroness.[186] Poseidon was enraged, and sent a drought to plague the city. One day, as an Argive woman namedAmymone went out in search of water, came upon asatyr who tried to rape her. Amymone prayed to Poseidon for help, and he scared the satyr away with his trident.[187] After Poseidon rescued Amymone from the lecherous satyr he fathered a child on her,Nauplius.[188]
Walls of Troy
Poseidon and Apollo, having offended Zeus by their rebellion in Hera's scheme, were temporarily stripped of their divine authority and sent to serve KingLaomedon of Troy. He had them build huge walls around the city and promised to reward them with his immortal horses, a promise he then refused to fulfill. In vengeance, before theTrojan War, Poseidon sent a sea monster to attack Troy. The monster was later killed byHeracles.[189]
Theseus
Poseidon and Theseus (on the left). Storage jar 470BC.J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu, California
Poseidon fathered the heroTheseus with theTroezenian princessAethra. Theseus was also said to be the son ofAegeus, the king of Athens, who slept with Aethra on the very same night. Thus Theseus's origins included both the human and the divine element.[190][191]
Meanwhile, inCrete, Zeus's sonMinos asked for Poseidon's help in order to certify his claim on the throne of Crete. Poseidon offered Minos a splendid white bull, with the understanding that he was to sacrifice the bull to Poseidon later. The Cretans were so impressed with the bull and the divine sign itself that Minos was declared king of Crete.[192][193] But wishing to keep the beautiful animal for himself, Minos instead sacrificed an ordinary bull to the sea-god instead of the agreed upon one.[193]
Poseidon, enraged, caused Minos's wife,Pasiphae, to fall in love with the bull; their coupling produced theMinotaur, a half-bull half-human creature who fed on human flesh.[192][193] Minos concealed him within the labyrinth built byDaedalus, and fed to him Athenian men and women he forced Aegeus to send him over.[168]
Once Theseus was grown up and recognized by his father Aegeus in Athens, he decided to end the bloody tax Athens had to pay to Crete once and for all, and volunteered to set sail to Crete along with the other Athenian youths who had been chosen to be devoured by the Minotaur.[194]
Once he arrived in Crete, Minos insulted Theseus and insisted he was no son of Poseidon; to demonstrate so, he threw his own ring in to the sea, and commanded Theseus to retrieve it, expecting he would not be able to do so.[195] Theseus immediately dove in after it.
Pasiphae seated on a throne receives the wooden cow fromDaidalos. Eros plays with the head of the crafted cow. Roman Mosaic, from Zeugma, Commagene.Zeugma Mosaic Museum, Gaziantep, Turkey
Dolphins then came as guides and escorted him to the halls of Poseidon and Amphitrite's palace, where he was warmly welcomed.[196] He received the ring, and in addition a purple wedding cloak and a crown from Amphitrite, to prove his words. Theseus then emerged from the sea and gave the ring to Minos.[197] Theseus killed the Minotaur, and in time succeeded his father Aegeus as king of Athens. By an Amazon he had a son,Hippolytus, while his wifePhaedra (Minos' daughter) gave him two sons.
At some point, Poseidon promised three favours to Theseus, and he called upon Poseidon to fulfill one of those when Phaedra falsely accused Hippolytus of forcing himself on her.[198] Theseus, not knowing the truth, asked his father to destroy Hippolytus; Poseidon granted his son's wish, and as Hippolytus was driving by the sea, Poseidon sent a terrifying sea monster to spook the man's horses, which then dragged him to his death.[198][199]
Poseidon was said to have had many lovers of both sexes. His consort wasAmphitrite, anymph and ancient sea-goddess, daughter ofNereus andDoris. In one account, attributed toEratosthenes, Poseidon wished to wed Amphitrite, but she fled from him and hid withAtlas. Poseidon sent out many to find her, and it was a dolphin who tracked her down. The dolphin persuaded Amphitrite to accept Poseidon as her husband, and eventually took charge of their wedding. Poseidon then put himamong the stars as a reward for his good services.[200]Oppian says that the dolphin betrayed Amphitrite's whereabouts to Poseidon, and he carried off Amphitrite against her will to marry her.[201] Together they had a son namedTriton, amerman.[202] Poseidon was the father of many heroes. He is thought to have fathered the famedTheseus. Poseidon also had an affair withAlope, his granddaughter throughCercyon, his son and King ofEleusis, begetting theAttic heroHippothoon. Cercyon had his daughter buried alive but Poseidon turned her into the spring, Alope, near Eleusis.[203]
A mortal woman namedCleito once lived on an isolated island; Poseidon fell in love with thehuman mortal and created a dwellingsanctuary at the top of a hill near the middle of theisland and surrounded the dwelling with rings of water and land to protect her. She gave birth to five sets of twin boys; the firstborn,Atlas, became the first ruler ofAtlantis.[6][7][8]Alebion andBergion andOtos and Ephialtae (thegiants).
Poseidon-Neptune and Amphitrite. Roman Mosaic 1st century AD. House of Neptune, Herculanum.Metropolitan City of Naples
Not all of Poseidon's children were human. His other children includePolyphemus (theCyclops) and, finally,Amycus was the son of Poseidon and theBithyniannymphMelia.[204] The philosopherPlato was held by his fellow ancient Greeks to have traced his descent to the sea-God Poseidon through his fatherAriston and his mythic predecessors the demigod kingsCodrus andMelanthus.[205][206]
Poseidon also took the youngNerites, the son ofNereus andDoris (and thus brother to Amphitrite) as a lover. Nerites was also Poseidon's charioteer, and impressed all marine creatures with his speed. But one day the sun god, Helios, turned Nerites into a shellfish.Aelian, who recorded this tale as told by mariners, says it is not clear why Helios did this, but theorizes he might have been offended somehow, or that he and Poseidon were rivals in love, and Helios wanted Nerites to travel among the constellations instead of the sea-monsters. From the love between Poseidon and Nerites was bornAnteros, mutual love.[207]
Bellerehron spearsChimera from underneath, while Pegasus strikes the monster with his hooves. Laconian Black Figure Kylix attributed to Boreads Painter, 570–565 B.C.J. Paul Getty Museum Malibu, California.
A mortal woman namedTyro was married toCretheus (with whom she had one son,Aeson), but lovedEnipeus, ariver god. She pursued Enipeus, who refused her advances. One day, Poseidon, filled with lust for Tyro, disguised himself as Enipeus, and from their union were born the heroesPelias andNeleus, twin boys.[209]
In an archaic myth, Poseidon once pursuedDemeter. She spurned his advances, turning herself into amare so that she could hide in a herd of horses; he saw through the deception and became astallion, captured andraped her.[210] Their child was ahorse, Arion, which was capable of human speech.[211] According toHesiod'sTheogony, Poseidon "lay down in a soft meadow among spring flowers" with theGorgonMedusa and two offspring, the winged horsePegasus and the warriorChrysaor, were born when the heroPerseus cut off Medusa's head.[212]
Lattanzio Gambara (c. 1530-Brescia 1574) - Poseidon-Neptune and Caenis
Ovid however says that Medusa was originally a very beautiful maiden whom Poseidon raped inside the temple of Athena. Athena, furious over the sacrilege, changed the beautiful girl into a monster.[213] Elsewhere in theMetamorphoses, Ovid says that Poseidon seduced Medusa in the form of a bird.[214]
One day, Poseidon spottedCaenis walking by the seashore, caught her and raped her. Having enjoyed her greatly, he offered her a wish, any wish. Traumatized, Caenis wished to be transformed into a man, so that she would never experience assault again. Poseidon fulfilled her request andchanged her into a male warrior, who then took the name Caeneus.[215]
Another time Poseidon once fell in love with a Phocian woman,Corone, the daughter ofCoronaeus as she was walking along the shore. He attempted to court her, but she rejected him, and ran away. Poseidon then chased her down with the aim to rape her. Athena, witnessing all that, took pity in the girl and changed her into a crow.[216]
When Zeus fell in love and pursued the goddessAsteria, she transformed into a quail and flung herself into the sea to escape being raped by him. Poseidon then, equally rapacious, picked up the chase where Zeus had left it and chased Asteria with the aim to force himself on her, so Asteria had to transform for a second time to save herself, this time into a small rocky island namedDelos.[217]
List of offspring and their mothers
The following is a list of Poseidon's offspring, by various mothers. Beside each offspring, the earliest source to record the parentage is given, along with the century to which the source (in some cases approximately) dates.
In theIliad, Poseidon favors the Greeks, and on several occasion takes an active part in the battle against the Trojan forces. However, in Book XX he rescuesAeneas after the Trojan prince is laid low byAchilles.
In theOdyssey, Poseidon is notable for his hatred ofOdysseus who blinded the god's son, theCyclopsPolyphemus. The enmity of Poseidon prevents Odysseus's return home toIthaca for many years. Odysseus is even told, notwithstanding his ultimate safe return, that to placate the wrath of Poseidon will require one more voyage on his part.
In theAeneid, Neptune is still resentful of the wandering Trojans, but is not as vindictive asJuno, and in Book I he rescues the Trojan fleet from the goddess's attempts to wreck it, although his primary motivation for doing this is his annoyance at Juno's having intruded into his domain.
A hymn to Poseidon included among theHomeric Hymns is a brief invocation, a seven-line introduction that addresses the god as both "mover of the earth and barren sea, god of the deep who is also lord ofMount Helicon and wideAegae,[354] and specifies his twofold nature as an Olympian: "a tamer of horses and a saviour of ships".
Poseidon has made multiple appearances in video games, such as inGod of War 3 bySony. In the game, Poseidon appears as aboss for the player to defeat.[358] In the video gameHades, he is a character who will grant "boons".[359]
^Jones, Daniel (2003) [1917], Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.),English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,ISBN978-3-12-539683-8
^abTimaeus 24e–25a,R. G. Bury translation (Loeb Classical Library).
^abAlso it has been interpreted that Plato or someone before him in the chain of the oral or written tradition of the report accidentally changed the very similar Greek words for "bigger than" ("meson") and "between" ("mezon") –Luce, J.V. (1969).The End of Atlantis – New Light on an Old Legend. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 224.
^Pierre ChantraineDictionnaire etymologique de la langue grecque Paris 1974–1980 4th s.v.; Lorenzo RocciVocabolario Greco-Italiano Milano, Roma, Napoli 1943 (1970) s.v.
^Beekes.Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 324
^van der Toorn, Karel; Becking, Bob; van der Horst, Pieter Willem (1999), Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (second ed.), Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdman's Publishing Company,ISBN0-8028-2491-9:[1] p.659
^abA.B. Stallmith in GRBS 18(2008) p.117,119, "The name of Demeter Thesmophoros".p.116
^abMylonas, "Mycenean age", p.159: "Wa-na-ssoi, wa-na-ka-te, (to the two queens and the king). Wanax is best suited to Poseidon, the special divinity of Pylos. The identity of the two divinities addressed as wanassoi, is uncertain"
^"In Greek popular religion, the chthonicPotniai (Wanassoi) and theErinyes are closely related to the Eleusinian Demeter":Dietrich, p.179-180The origins of Greek religion 189-190
^Jeffery, "The city states", p.72:"The proud titledikaios (the Just) in Thessaly was borne by a good brood-mare of Pharsalus, whose foals all resembled their sires."
^"gaiaochos ennosigaios": holder of the earth earthshaker:Smith Poseidon
^Nilsson ,"Geschicte", Vol I, p.450 : a)Thales: Plutarch, plac.phil. p. 896 C, b)Anaximenes-Aristotle:Aristotle, Meteorogica 27 p. 365 . All Inform. by Seneca quest. nat. VI 6;10;20
^Pindar, Pyth, II v,7:Nilsson, "Geschichte", Vol I, p.492.
^abcd"In 480 BC a great storm at Magnesia and then at Artemision heavily damaged the Persian fleet. After the war the Greeks gave to Poseidon the epithetsoter (savior). Theagalma found near Artemision was probably a thank offering dedicated to Poseidon-Soter (saviοr)" : Burkert, "Greek religion"p.137
^Helikonios, (Ελικώνιος): The word may mean, "god of the eddying waves" :Nilsson, Geschichte. p.447 A6
^The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. Homeric Hymns. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.Homeric Hymn to Poseidon
^ab"The form is the same withHelikon. Traditionally the adjective derives from the townHelike ofAchaea . However it is possible that it derives from "helix" (twisted, spiral) and Poseidon would be the "god of the eddying waves"":Nilsson, "Geschichte, p.447 A6
^Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Müller's ed. Papyrus OxyrrhincusFragmenta Historicorum Graecorum 148, 44, col. 2; quoted by Robin Lane Fox,Alexander the Great (1973) 1986:168 and note. Alexander also invoked other sea deities:Thetis, mother of his heroAchilles,Nereus and theNereids
^N.Spivey (1997),Greek art, Phaidon Press Limited, p. 61.
^abGebhard, Elizabeth R. and Hemans, Frederick P. University of Chicago Excavations at Isthmia, 1989: I.Hesperia, Volume 61, Number 1 (January 1992), pp. 1–77, page 25.
^Thermon: one column in the porch, five columns on the facade. "Basilica" (Paestum): three columns on the potch, nine columns in the pteron facade :Robertson, p.73
^Paestum, second temple ofHera: two columns in the porch.Sounion: two columns in the porch.
^Salmon, J. B. 1984.Wealthy Corinth: A History of the City to 338 BC. Oxford: Clarendon Press, page 61.
^Gebhard, Elizabeth on ‘The Evolution of a Pan-Hellenic Sanctuary: From Archaeology towards History at Isthmia.’ pp. 154–177 in: Marinatos, Nanno (ed.) and Hägg, Robin (ed.). 1993.Greek Sanctuaries: New Approaches. London: Routledge, page 160.
^In the 2nd century AD, a well with the name ofArne, the "lamb's well", in the neighbourhood ofMantineia inArcadia, where old traditions lingered, was shown toPausanias. (Pausanias,8.8.2)
^Grummond and Ridgway, p.69, "Helios' higher position would correspond to the sun's location in the sky versus Poseidon's lower venue in the sea, oppositeDemeter on land."
^According toHesiod,Theogony886–890Archived 5 May 2016 at theWayback Machine, of Zeus' children by his seven wives, Athena was the first to be conceived, but the last to be born; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her, later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena "from his head", see Gantz, pp. 51–52, 83–84.
^The ancient palace-city that was replaced byVergina
^Chaffey, Don (19 June 1963),Jason and the Argonauts (Action, Adventure, Family), Todd Armstrong, Nancy Kovack, Gary Raymond, Charles H. Schneer Productions, retrieved18 September 2023
Gantz, Timothy,Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes:ISBN978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1),ISBN978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2).
Hesiod,Theogony, inThe Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Homer,The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Homer;The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Parada, Carlos,Genealogical Guide to Greek Mythology, Jonsered, Paul Åströms Förlag, 1993.ISBN978-91-7081-062-6.
Pausanias,Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Seelig, Beth J. (August 2002), "The Rape of Medusa in the Temple of Athena: Aspects of Triangulation in the Girl",The International Journal of Psychoanalysis,83 (4):895–911,doi:10.1516/3NLL-UG13-TP2J-927M,PMID12204171,S2CID28961886
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