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The Portugueseexploreddistant lands previously unknown to Europeans—in the Americas, Africa, Asia and Oceania (southwest Pacific Ocean). In 1415, with theconquest of Ceuta, the Portuguese took a significant role in theAge of Discovery, which culminated in acolonial empire. It was one of the first global empires and one of the world's major economic, political and military powers in the 15th and 16th centuries, with territories that became part of numerous countries.[98][99][100] Portugal helped to launch the spread ofWestern civilization to other geographies.[101][102][103][100]
During and after the period of thePortuguese Empire, the Portuguese diaspora spread across the world.[104]
The name Portugal is aportmanteau that comes from theLatin wordPortus (meaning port) and a second wordCale, whose meaning and origin are unclear.Cale is probably a reminder of theGallaeci (also known as Callaeci), aCeltic tribe that lived in part ofNorthern Portugal.
Alternatively the name may have come from the early settlement of Cale (today'sGaia), situated on the mouth of theDouro River on the Atlantic coast (Portus Cale). The name Cale seems to come from theCelts – perhaps from one of their specifications,Cailleach – but which, in everyday life, was synonymous with shelter, anchorage or door.[127] Among other theories, some suggest that Cale may stem from theGreek word forkalós (beautiful). Another theory for Portugal postulates a French derivation,Portus Gallus[128] "port of the Gauls".
During theMiddle Ages, the area around Cale became known through theVisigoths asPortucale. Portucale could have evolved in the 7th and 8th centuries, to becomePortugale, or Portugal, from the 9th century. The term denoted the area between the Douro andMinho rivers.[129]
Aroeira 3 skull of 400,000-year-oldHomo heidelbergensis found in 2014. The oldest trace of human history in Portugal
Portuguese origins are predominantly fromSouthern and Western Europe. The earliestmodern humans inhabiting Portugal are believed to have arrived in theIberian Peninsula 35,000 to 40,000 years ago.Y-chromosome andmtDNA data suggest that modern Portuguese trace a proportion of these lineages to thePaleolithic peoples who began settling the European continent at the end of thelast glaciation around 45,000 years ago.
Distribution ofR1a (purple) andR1b (red). See alsothis map for distribution in Europe.
Northern Iberia is believed to have been a majorIce age refuge from which Paleolithic humans later colonized Europe. Migrations from northern Iberia during the Paleolithic andMesolithic link modernIberians to much of Western Europe, particularly theBritish Isles andAtlantic Europe.[130]
Y-chromosomehaplogroupR1b is the most common haplogroup in the Iberian peninsula and western Europe.[131] One of the best-characterized of Iberian haplotypes is theAtlantic Modal Haplotype (AMH). This haplotype reaches the highest frequencies there and in the British Isles. In Portugal it reckons generally 65% in the South, ranging from 87-96% northwards.[132]
TheNeolithiccolonization of Europe from Western Asia and the Middle East, beginning around 10,000 years ago, reachedIberia after reaching the rest of the continent. According to thedemic diffusion model its impact was greatest in the southern and eastern regions.[133]
In the 3rd millennium BC, during theBronze Age, the first wave of migrations byIndo-European language speakers into Iberia occurred. The expansion ofhaplogroup R1b in Western Europe, most common in many areas ofAtlantic Europe, was primarily due to massive migrations from thePontic–Caspian steppe of Eastern Europe during theBronze Age, along with carriers ofIndo-European languages likeproto-Celtic andproto-Italic. Unlike older studies on uniparental markers, large amounts ofautosomal DNA were analyzed in addition to paternalY-DNA. Anautosomal component was detected in modern Europeans that was not present in the Neolithic or Mesolithic, and which entered Europe with paternal lineages R1b and R1a, as well as the Indo-European languages.[134][135][136]
Indo-European migrations
The first immigrations of Indo-European language speakers were followed by waves ofCelts. The Celts arrived in Portugal about 3,000 years ago.[137] Migration was particularly intense from the 7th to the 5th centuries BC.[138][139]
These two processes defined Iberia's cultural landscape "Continental in the northwest and Mediterranean towards the southeast", as historianJosé Mattoso described.[140]
The northwest–southeast cultural shift also shows in genetic differences: based on 2016 findings,[141] haplogroup H, a cluster within the haplogroup R category, is more prevalent along theAtlantic façade, including theCantabrian Coast and Portugal. Its highest frequency is inGalicia (northwestern corner of Iberia). The frequency of haplogroup H shows a decreasing trend from the Atlantic façade toward the Mediterranean.
This finding adds strong evidence thatGalicia andNorthern Portugal was a cul-de-sac population, a kind of European edge for a major ancient central European migration. An interesting pattern of genetic continuity exists along theCantabria coast and Portugal, a pattern observed previously when minor sub-clades of the mtDNA phylogeny were examined.[142]
TheLusitanians may have originated in theAlps and settled in the region in the 6th century BC. Scholars such asDáithí Ó hÓgáin consider them to beindigenous.[148] He claimed they were initially dominated by theCelts, before gaining full independence. RomanianarchaeologistScarlat Lambrino [ro], active in Portugal for many years, proposed that they were originally a tribalCeltic group, related to theLusones.[149]
The first area settled by theLusitanians was probably theDouro Valley and the region ofBeira Alta; they subsequently moved south, and expanded on both sides of theTagus river, before theRoman conquest.
The Lusitanians originated from eitherProto-Celtic orProto-Italic populations who spread from Central Europe into western Europe afterYamnaya migrations into theDanube Valley, whileProto-Germanic andProto-Balto-Slavic may have developed east of theCarpathian Mountains, in present-dayUkraine, moving north and spreading with theCorded Ware culture in Middle Europe (third millennium BCE). One theory claimed that a European branch of Indo-European dialects, termed "North-west Indo-European" and associated with theBell Beaker culture, may have been ancestral to Celtic, Italic, Germanic, and Balto-Slavic lanaguages.[150]
The Lusitanians' Celtic root, is further emphasized by research by theMax Planck Institute on the origins of Indo-European languages. One study identified one common Celtic branch of peoples and languages spanning most of Atlantic Europe, including Lusitania, at around 7,000 BC. This work contradicts previous theories that excluded Lusitanian from the Celtic linguistic family.[151]
In Roman times, the Roman province ofLusitania was extended north of the areas occupied by the Lusitanians to include the territories ofAsturias andGallaecia, but these were soon ceded to the jurisdiction of theProvincia Tarraconensis in the north, while the south remained theProvincia Lusitania et Vettones. After this, Lusitania's northern border was along the Douro river, while its eastern border passed throughSalmantica andCaesarobriga to theAnas (Guadiana) river.
Map showing the main pre-Roman tribes in Portugal and their main migrations.Turduli movement in red,Celtici in brown and Lusitanian in a blue colour. Most tribes neighbouring the Lusitanians were dependent on them. Names are in Latin.
As the Lusitanians fought the Romans, the name Lusitania was adopted by theGallaeci, tribes living north of the Douro, and other surrounding tribes, eventually spreading as a label to the nearby peoples fighting Roman rule in western Iberia. This led the Romans to name their original province in the area, which initially covered the entire western side of the Iberian peninsula, Lusitania.
List of the tribes living in "Portugal" prior to Roman rule:
also referred to asSefes and supposedly linked to theCempsii [pt].[152] There is not a consensus regarding their exact origins and location. They are believed to have been the first known humans to inhabit the whole Atlantic margin covering Portugal and Galicia, the people fromFinis terrae at the end of the Western world.[153][154]
living in the mountains ofSerra da Nogueira [pt], Sanabria and Culebra, up to the mountains ofMogadouro in northern Portugal and adjacent areas ofGalicia.
Rome conquered the peninsula during the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. fromCarthage during thePunic Wars.
After 193 B.C., the Lusitanians fought Rome's expansion peninsula following the defeat and occupation ofCarthage in North Africa. They fought for years, repeatedly defeating theRoman invaders. In the end they were punished byPraetorServius Galba in 150 B.C. He killed 9,000 Lusitanians and later sold 20,000 more asslaves to the Roman provinces inGaul (modern France).
Three years later (147 B.C.),Viriathus became the leader of the Lusitanians and attacked Roman rule in Lusitania and beyond. He commanded a confederation of Celtic tribes[156] and prevented Roman expansion with guerrilla warfare. In 139 B.C. Viriathus was betrayed and killed in his sleep by his companions (emissaries to theRomans),Audax, Ditalcus and Minurus,bribed byMarcus Popillius Laenas. However, when Audax, Ditalcus and Minurus returned to receive their reward, ConsulQuintus Servilius Caepio ordered their execution, declaring,"Rome does not pay traitors".
Ethnographic and Linguistic Map of the Iberian Peninsula at about 200 BC.[157]
A 1949 study by the Italian-American linguistMario Pei, analyzing the degree to which Portuguese and six other Romance languages diverged from Vulgar Latin with respect to their accent vocalization, yielded the following measurements of divergence—with higher percentages indicating greater divergence from the stressed vowels of Vulgar Latin—placing Portuguese toward the innovative end of the spectrum in this respect:
The study emphasized, however, that it represented only "a very elementary, incomplete and tentative demonstration" of how statistical methods could measure linguistic change, assigned "frankly arbitrary" point values to various types of change, and did not compare languages in the sample with respect to any characteristics or forms of divergence other than stressed vowels, among other caveats.[161]
Roman domination lasted from the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD.
TheReconquista Timetable and expulsion of the Moors.
TheMoors occupied what is now Portugal from the 8th century until theReconquista movement expelled them in 1249. Some 2.000 of their population, mainlyBerbers and Christian Jews becameNew Christians (Cristãos novos); some descendants of these people are still identifiable by their newsurnames.[168] Several genetic studies, including the most comprehensivegenome-wide studies published on historical and modern populations of theIberian Peninsula, conclude that theMoorish occupation left few to noJewish,Arab andBerber genetic influences throughout Iberia, with higher incidence in the south and west, and lower incidence in the northeast, and almost none inBasque Country.[169][170][111][112]
The political origin of the Portuguese state is in the founding ofCounty of Portugal in868 (Portuguese:Condado Portucalense; in period documents the name used was Portugalia[177]). It was the first time that a cohesive nationalism emerged there[citation needed], as even during the Roman Era, the indigenous populations were from diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds.
The Portuguese share some DNA with theBasques.[178] The results of the presentHLA study in Portuguese populations show that they have features in common with Basques and someMadrid-areaSpaniards: a high frequency of the HLA-haplotypes A29-B44-DR7 (ancient Western Europeans) and A1-B8-DR3 are common characteristics. Many Portuguese and Basques do not show the Mediterranean A33-B14-DR1haplotype, confirming a lower admixture withMediterraneans.[142]
Geographical distribution of Haplogroup R1b (Y-DNA), R1b1a1a2 (R-M269)
The Portuguese have one unique characteristic: a high frequency of HLA-A25-B18-DR15 and A26-B38-DR13, which may reflect a founder effect from ancient Portuguese, i.e.,Oestriminis andCynetes.[179] According to an early genetic study, the Portuguese are a relatively distinct population according to HLA data, as they have a high frequency of the HLA-A25-B18-DR15 and A26-B38-DR13 genes, the latter is a unique Portuguese marker. In Europe, the A25-B18-DR15 gene is found only in Portugal; it also observed in some North Americans and inBrazilians (very likely of Portuguese ancestry).[180]
The pan-European haplotypeA1-B8-DR3 and the western-European haplotype A29-B44-DR7 are shared by Portuguese, Basques, and Spaniards. The latter is also common in Irish, southern English, and western French populations.[180]
Around 9.15 million (87%) Portuguese-born people live in the country,[188] out of a total population of 10.467 million.[189]
About 782,000 foreigners live legally in the country (7%), thus approximately 9.685 million people living in Portugal hold Portuguese citizenship or legal residency.[190]
Portugal boasts one of the world's lowestinfant mortality rates (3%), down from 9% in 1961.[196] The average age of women at first childbirth was at 30 years, in contrast to the EU average of 28.[197]
About 67% live in urban settings, concentrated along the coast and in theLisbon metropolitan area, which hosts 2,883,645, or 28%.[198][199]
About 65% of the national population, or 6,760,989 people, live in the 56 municipalities with more than 50,000 inhabitants, about 18% of allnational municipalities. The country hosts 122 municipalities, about 40% of all national municipalities, with a population of 10,000 inhabitants or less, totaling 678,855 inhabitants, about 7% of the national population.
Barranquenhu (see alsoBarranquenho) is spoken in the town ofBarrancos (in the border betweenExtremadura andAndalusia, in Spain). Some 3,000 speak the language (0.03%).[210] It is a Portuquese dialect influenced byExtremaduran and, later, southern Spanish.
Portugal is home to other EU andEEA/EFTA nationals (French, Germans, Dutch, Swedes, Spaniards). The UK and France represented the largest senior resident communities as of 2019. They are part of a larger expatriate community includingGermans,Dutch,Belgians andSwedes.[221]
Officially registered foreigners amount to 7% of the population.[190][222] Descendants of immigrants are excluded (Portugal, like many European countries, does not collect data on ethnicity) and those who, regardless ofplace of birth or citizenship at birth, were Portuguese citizens.
A Portuguese surname is typically composed of a variable number offamily names (rarely one, often two or three or more). The first additional names are usually the mother's surname(s) and the father's family surname(s). For practicality, usually only the final surname (excluding prepositions) is used in greetings.
Portugal's adaptable naming system complies with the country's legal framework. The law mandates that a child must be given at least one personal name and one surname from a parent. The limit is two personal names and four surnames.[230]
In pre-Roman times, inhabitants had either a single name or a name followed by a patronym, which reflected their ethnicity or their tribe/region. These names could beCeltic,Lusitanian,Iberian, orConii. However, theRoman onomastic system began to slowly gain popularity after the first century AD. This system involved adopting a Roman name (tria nomina), which consisted of apraenomen (given name),nomen (gentile), andcognomen. Today, most Portuguese surnames have a Germanic patronymic (such asHenriques,Pires,Rodrigues,Lopes,Nunes,Mendes,Fernandes etc. where the ending -es means "son of"), locative (Gouveia,Guimarães,Lima,Maia,Mascarenhas,Serpa,Montes,Fonseca,Barroso), religious origin (Cruz,Reis,De Jesus,Moysés,Nascimento), occupational (Carpinteiro (carpenter),Malheiro (wool-maker, thresher),Jardineiro (gardener), or derived from physical appearance (Branco (white),Trigueiro (brown, tanned),Louraço (blond). Toponymic, locative, and religion-derived surnames are often preceded by the preposition 'of' in its varying forms: (De, de), (Do, do- masculine), (Da, da- feminine) or 'of the' (dos, Dos, das, Das – plural) such asDe Carvalho,Da Silva,de Gouveia,Da Costa,da Maia,do Nascimento,dos Santos,das Mercês. If the preposition is followed by a vowel, sometimes apostrophes are used in surnames (or stage names) such as D'Oliveira, d'Abranches, d'Eça. In some previous Asian colonies (India, Malaysia, East Timor) alternative spellings are used such as 'D'Souza, Desouza, De Cunha, Ferrao, Dessais, Balsemao, Conceicao, Gurjao, Mathias, Thomaz.
The majority of Portuguese have multiple surnames.
Portuguesecoat of arms and sign – commending the property and hospital toAnthony of Lisbon – outside the Church ofSant'Antonio dei Portoghesi, Rome; the Portuguese presence in Europe outside of Portugal, has had many reasons such as economic, cultural and religious (up).Santa Cruz Church, Thon Buri District,Bangkok, Constructed by Portuguese monks in the 18th Century (down)
Portugal was traditionally a land of emigration: according to estimates, more than one hundred million people could have recognizable Portuguese ancestors, with Portuguese diasporas found in diverse regions in allcontinents. However, poor sources for statistics dating hundreds of years ago complicate any estimates.[234][235][236]
In addition, a considerable segment of the diaspora is due to recent mass emigration, mainly for economic reasons. Between 1886 and 1966 Portugal had more emigrants than any Western European country save Ireland.[238] Nearly two million left to live mainly in Brazil, but also significant numbers settled in the US, Canada, and theCaribbean.[239] About 1.2 million Brazilian citizens are native Portuguese.[240][241]
By 1989 some 4,000,000 Portuguese citizens were living abroad, mainly in France, Germany, Brazil, South Africa, Canada,Venezuela, and the US.[242] Estimates from 2021 are that as much as 5 million Portuguese citizens (not descendants or citizens registered within the Portuguese consular authorities) may be living abroad.[243]
Within Europe, many Portuguese live inFrancophone countries like France,Luxembourg and Switzerland, spurred in part by thelinguistic proximity ofPortuguese and French. In fact, according to data from the General Directorate of Consular Affairs and Portuguese Communities of the Portuguese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the countries with the largest Portuguese communities are, in ascending order, France, the UK and Switzerland.[244]
"The Banishment of the Jews", byAlfredo Roque Gameiro, inQuadros da História de Portugal ("Pictures of the History of Portugal", 1917)
Descendants of PortugueseSephardi Jews established many communities around the world, including in significant numbers in Israel, theNetherlands, the United States, France,Venezuela, Brazil andTurkey.
The Portuguese Jewish diaspora was mainly a result of theexpulsion decree[245] issued in 1496 by thePortuguese monarchy, which targeted Portuguese-Jews. This decree forced many Jews to eitherconvert to Christianity (leading to the emergence ofCristão-novos and ofCrypto-Judaism practices) or to leave, leading Portuguese Jews to settle throughout Europe and Brazil. In Brazil[246] many of the early colonists were originally Sephardi Jews who, following their conversion, were known asNew Christians(seeAnusim).[247][248]
In memoriam of the expulsion of the Jews fromPorto.
Up to 10,000 Portuguese-Jews might have migrated to France from 1497; this phenomenon remained noticeable until the 1600s, when theNetherlands became a favorite choice.[249][250]
During theShoah, nearly 4,000 Jews of Portuguese descent residing in the Netherlands lost their lives, making up the largest group of casualties with a Portuguese background.[261][262] Among famous Portuguese-Jewish victims of the Shoah is painterBaruch Lopes Leão de Laguna. Although officiallyneutral, the Portuguese regime at that time,Estado Novo, aligned withGermany's ideology and failed to protect its citizens and other Jewish people living overseas.[263][264][265] Despite the lack of support by the Portuguese authorities, Jews of both Portuguese[266] and other descent were saved thanks to individuals such asCarlos Sampaio Garrido, Joaquim Carreira, José Brito Mendes andAristides de Sousa Mendes,[267] who alone helped 34,000 Jews
Over 500 years after the expulsion decree, in 2015 thePortuguese parliament officially acknowledged that the expulsion of its citizens of Jewish descent was wrong. The government then passed aLaw of Return[268] that aimed to address the wrongs of thePortuguese Inquisition. The law grants citizenship to any descendants of those persecuted Jews able to confirm their Sephardic Jewish ancestry and a "connection" to Portugal.[269][270][271]
Francis Lewis Cardozo (1836–1903): American clergyman, politician, and educator. When elected in South Carolina as Secretary of State in 1868, he was the firstAfrican American to hold a statewide office in the United States
Maud Nathan (1862–1946): American social worker, labor activist and women'ssuffragist
Mathias de Sousa, who was potentially a Sephardic Jew of mixed African background, is believed to be the first documented Portuguese resident ofcolonial United States.[286] Another Portuguese Jew,Isaac Touro, is commemorated in the name of the US' oldest synagogue, theTouro Synagogue.
Portuguese started to settle in significant numbers only in the 19th century, with major migration waves occurring in the first half of the 20th century, especially from theAzores.[287][288] Of the 1,4 million Portuguese Americans found in the US (0.4% of itspopulation) the majority are originally from the Azores. The arrival of Azorean emigrants was easier because of geographic proximity and was encouraged by the Azorean Refugee Act of 1958, sponsored by then-SenatorJohn F. Kennedy andJohn Pastore to help the population affected by the 1957–58, theCapelinhos volcano eruption.[289][290][291] Moreover, the 1965Immigration Act stated that if someone had legal or American relatives in the US who would serve as a sponsor, they could obtain the status oflegal aliens. This act dramatically increased Portuguese immigration in the 1970s and 1980s.[292]
Canada, particularlyOntario, Quebec andBritish Columbia, developed a significant Portuguese community since the 1940s. The availability of morejob opportunities in Canada attracted Portuguese migrants, leading to Portuguese culture to flourish. Many Portuguese residents took the initiative to purchase homes and establish businesses.
According to the2016 Census, 482,610, or 1.4% of Canadians claimed Portuguese ancestry.[296]
Two major neighbourhoods where Portuguese are notable include the Little Portugals inToronto andMontréal. Montréal's Little Portugal, known as "Petit Portugal" in French, hosts Portuguese shops, restaurants, and cafes, and is also home to "Parc du Portugal" (Portugal's park), featuring vibrant murals and elements inspired byPortuguese design.[297][298]
ThePortuguese language is spoken by over 330,000 Canadians, making up around 1% of the population.[299]
Significant testimonies of the Portuguese presence in Canada include the name of one of the10 provinces of Canada:Newfoundland and Labrador.King Henry VII coined the name "New found land" for the territory explored bySebastian andJohn Cabot. InPortuguese, the land is known asTerra Nova, which translates to "new land," and is also referred to asTerre-Neuve in French, the name for the province's island region. The name Terra Nova is commonly used on the island, including in the name ofTerra Nova National Park. The influence of early Portuguese exploration is also evident in the name of Labrador, which is derived from the surname ofPortuguese navigatorJoão Fernandes Lavrador.[300] Other remnants of early Portuguese exploration include toponyms such asBaccalieu (frombacalhau,Portuguese forcodfish) andPortugal Cove. Portuguese cartographerDiogo Ribeiro is responsible for one of the earliest maps depicting the territory of modern-day Canada.[301]
About 4,000 Portuguese people live in the Caribbean territories of Overseas France, especially inSaint Barthélemy (where they constitute about a third of the population),Guadeloupe andMartinique.[322][323][324]
Portuguese heritage lives on inAruba,Bonaire andCuraçao. In the three territories, the official language,Papiamentu, includes numerous Portuguese elements.
The North Atlantic archipelago ofBermuda (10%[325] to 25%[326] of the population) experienced sustained immigration especially from theAzores, as well as from Madeira and theCape Verde Islands since the 1840s.[327]
Mexico had flows of Portuguese immigration from the colonial period through the early 20th century, most importantly in northeastern cities[329] such asSaltillo,Monterrey,Durango andTorreon.Santiago Tequixquiac, due to its lime and stone mining deposits, was a place of settlement for PortugueseCrypto-Jews during the colonial period. They were brought there together with theTlaxcalans andpeninsular Spaniards to appease theOtomi indigenous people in that town. Many Lusitanian cultural traits were preserved through the 19th century, such asforcados,gastronomy, some Sephardic customs and its inhabitants' surnames.Bullfighting is a Portuguese tradition that continues in Mexico.[330] A notable Portuguese-Mexican Jew wasFrancisca Nuñez de Carabajal, executed by burning at the stake by theInquisition forjudaizing in 1596.
Colombia did not welcome mass Portuguese immigration. Although Portuguese may have explored the area, they did not establish communities there. Colombia became a Spanish colony, as defined by theTreaty of Tordesillas. The Portuguese embassy in Bogota estimated that around 800 Portuguese nationals live there. The number with Portuguese ancestry is not known, but they left little mark on the culture, except for some surnames.[332][333]
InPeru, a modest migration began at the time of theViceroyalty of Peru. Sailors who traveled along the Peruvian coast, and later entered the country from the Atlantic via theAmazon River settled there. Records ofLuso-Brazilians survive in the cities surrounding theBrazil-Peru border. Portuguese citizens in Peru number about 2,000,[334] Peruvians with Portuguese ancestry could approach 1 million, including direct and indirect descendants, or about 3% of the total.[335] A famous Peruvian of Portuguese descent is popular TV presenterJanet Barboza [es].
Portuguese Uruguayans are mainly ofAzorean descent.[339] Portuguese presence in the country dates to colonial times, in particular to the establishment ofColonia del Sacramento by the Portuguese in 1680,[340] which eventually turned into a regionalsmuggling center. Other Portuguese entered Uruguay fromBrazil. During the second half of the 19th century and part of the 20th, several additional Portuguese immigrants arrived; the last wave came during 1930–1965.[341][342] As of 2021, 3,069[343] Portuguese citizens had registered as residing in Uruguay. Many luso-descendants also reside there, but numbers are lacking.[344][336]
Argentina-Portugal relations date back to the early explorers, as theRío de la Plata (literally, silver river) was first explored by the Portuguese in the 1510s. InArgentina, Portuguese immigration remained limited due to a preference for Brazil. However, the Portuguese constituted the second-largest immigrant group after the Spanish before1816 and continued to arrive throughout the 19th century. While a significant number settled in the interior, the primary destination wasBuenos Aires. Many men fromLisbon,Porto, and coastal regions of Portugal, predominantly in maritime professions, were already present. During the 1970s, they began to organize ethnically, and community life developed.[345][346] A popular member of the Portuguese community in Argentina was best-selling authorSilvina Bullrich.
In the early twentieth century the Portuguese government encouraged migration toAngola andMozambique, and by the 1970s, up to 1 million Portuguese settlers were living in Portugal's overseas African provinces.[347] Minor communities settled inGuinea-Bissau,Equatorial Guinea,Cape Verde andSão Tomé and Príncipe, Portuguese influences continue there: Portuguese enjoys the status ofofficial language.
Following theCarnation Revolution, as the country's African possessions gained independence in 1975, an estimated 800,000 Portuguese emigrated from the former colonies.[348][349] Returnees to Portugal are often referred asRetornados (literally, those who came back).
Some Portuguese moved to South Africa,Botswana, andAlgeria.[350][351][352][353][354] In particular, South Africa hosts the largest Portuguese community in the continent, numbering about 700,000 (more than Lisbon).
Portuguese descendants make up a significant minority in the former colonies where, they make up the bulk ofMestiços (Mixed African-European people).[355][356][357][358]
Around 15% of Portuguese people are fluent in French.[363][364] French has been dwindling, often replaced by English. In 2005 French fluency stood at 24%.[365] Nevertheless, 70% of middle school students study French.[366] French media are widely available in Portugal (newspapers, magazines,radio stations andTV channels) and manylibraries offer a French-language section.
Portuguese migration to the more affluent French speaking countries in Europe continues, although at a lower rate.
More than 2,260,000 Portuguese citizens live in these countries. In addition, France alone hosts 450,000 Luso-descendants.[citation needed]
Records of Portuguese living in France date to the early centuries of the Portuguese kingdom, notably merchants,Portuguese-Jews andPortuguese nobles:Louis XIV was of Portuguese descent through his grandfatherPhilip II. Despite a centuries-long presence, Portuguese nationals only started to move to France in large numbers following World War 2.[367][368]
From the 1960s,Brazil's economic stagnation, French efforts to attract Portuguese workers, andAntónio de Oliveira Salazar'sdictatorship and thecolonial wars were factors that contributed to 1,000,000 people migrating to France from 1960 to 1974.[369][370][371][372][373] After 1974, Portuguese nationals started moving to Luxembourg and Monaco (1980s), Switzerland (1990s) and – Belgium and Andorra (2000s). This is also due to France's tightened immigration control.[374][375][376]
Portuguese constitute 23.4% ofLuxembourg's population, second to nativeLuxembourgers; the Luxembourgers of Portuguese blood speakLetzeburgesch (a German dialect) andStandard German, aside from French. Andorra is inhabited by 16,300 Portuguese nationals (19.4% of the population)[377][378],Monaco hosts around 1,000 (3.3% of the Population),[379] whileBelgium is home to around 80,000 (0.7% of the population).[380]
In Switzerland, Portuguese settled mainly inRomandy. Official figures suggest thatPortuguese is spoken by 5% of the population at home and 10.1% inFrench speaking Switzerland, thus making Portuguese second only to French.[381]
Portuguese migration towards these countries has steadily declined over the years, although from 2003 to 2022 around 615,000 Portuguese nationals migrated there, especially following the2008 financial crisis. As of 2021 around 40% had returned to Portugal, as the economic outlook improved.[382]
Portuguese immigrants to Belgium, France, Luxembourg, and Switzerland(2022 data for Belgium missing)[383]
After WWII hundreds of thousands of Portuguese settled asguest workers in Western European countries. On 17 March 1964, the recruitment agreement between theFederal Republic of Germany and Portugal was signed under the Erhard I cabinet. Armando Rodrigues de Sá was officially welcomed in 1964 as the millionth "guest worker" in Germany and was given a certificate and a two-seater Zündapp Sport Combinette – Mokick.[384] The number of Portuguese citizens living in Germany was estimated at 245,000 as of 2021.[385] The largest Portuguese community is located inHamburg numbering about 25,000. APortugiesenviertel (Portuguese quarter) in Hamburg sits near thePort of Hamburg and between the subway stations ofLandungsbrücken andBaumwall.
In theUnited Kingdom, people of Portuguese origin were estimated at 400,000 in 2021.[386][387] Other sources claim as many as 500,000 Portuguese there,[388] considerably higher than the estimated 170,000 Portuguese-born people residing in the country in 2021[389] (excluding British-born people of Portuguese descent).
In areas such asThetford and the crown dependencies ofJersey andGuernsey, Portuguese form the largest ethnic minority groups at 30%.
Passport of an immigrant from theBraga District to Brazil
Portuguese are thelargest European immigrant group in Brazil. Incolonial times, over 700,000 Portuguese settled there, mostly during the 18th century gold rush.[391] Brazil received more European settlers during its colonial era than any other country in the Americas. Between 1500 and 1760, about 700,000 Europeans immigrated to Brazil, compared to 530,000 to the US.[392][393] They were the only significant migrants to the country during the colonial era, despiteFrench andDutch invasions. The Portuguese migration was predominantly men. TheJesuits asked the Portuguese King to send any kind of Portuguese women to Brazil, even the socially undesirable (e.g. prostitutes or women with mental maladies), if necessary.[394][395] The Crown responded by sending groups of orphans to marry nobles and peasants alike.[394][396]
They included manyÓrfãs do Rei (orphans of the king) of what was considered "good birth". They were noble and non-noble maidens, often daughters of soldiers killed in battle or noblemen who died overseas and whose upbringing was paid by the Crown.Bahia's port in the East received one of the first groups of orphans in 1551.[397] Portuguese men also competed successfully for local women withslaves andindigenous peoples.[398] Their betterquality of life and lowermortality rate were important advantages. Then, even though the 700,000 Portuguese colonial migration was smaller than 3.2 million indigenous inhabitants and the 4.8million Africans, their descendants numbered as many as the "non-white" population in the early 19th century.[399][400][398] Afterindependence from Portugal in 1822, around 1.7 million additional Portuguese immigrants settled there.[398]
Portuguese immigration in the 19th and 20th centuries was marked by its concentration inSão Paulo andRio de Janeiro. The immigrants opted mostly forurban centers. Portuguese women began to migrate independently, although even at the turn of the 20th century, 319 men came for each 100 women.[401] The Portuguese were different fromGermans[402] orItalians[403] who brought many more women with them. Despite the small female proportion, Portuguese men typically chose Portuguese women, while female immigrants rarely married indigenous men. Portugueseendogamy was higher than any other European immigrant community, behind only theJapanese.[404]
Many Portuguese-Brazilians identified as Brazilian, perhaps encouraged by the dominance of Portuguese culture there.
In 1872, 3.7 millionWhites lived in Brazil (the vast majority of Portuguese ancestry), along with 4.1 millionmixed-race people (mostly of Portuguese-African-Amerindian ancestry) and 1.9 millionBlacks. Thus 80% of Brazilians had at least partial Portuguese ancestry in the 1870s.[405]
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a new large wave of Portuguese immigrants arrived, including over 1.5 million Portuguese from 1881 to 1991. In 1906, for example, 133,393 Portuguese-born people lived inRio de Janeiro, comprising 16% of the city's population. Rio remains the largest "Portuguese city" outside of Portugal, with 1% Portuguese natives.[392][406][407] Because of the independence of Portuguese overseas provinces after theCarnation Revolution in 1974, a new wave of Portuguese settlers arrived in Brazil until the late 1970s as refugees from Portugal and the newly independent countries of Angola and Mozambique.[408][failed verification].[409][410]
Genetic studies confirm the strong Portuguese genetic influence. At least half of the Brazilian population's male inheritance (based onY chromosomes) comes from Portugal.Black Brazilians have an average of 48% non-African genes, mostly with Portuguese ancestors. By contrast, 33% Amerindian and 28% African contribution to the total female inheritance (mtDNA) of white Brazilians was found.[411][412]
Anautosomal study from 2013, with nearly 1300 samples from across Brazil, found a predominant degree of Portuguese ancestry. European ancestry was the most prevalent in all urban populations (with values from 51% to 74%, increasing northern to southern Brazil). Northern populations included a significant proportion of indigenous ancestry, twice the African contribution. In the northeast, centerwest and southeast, African ancestry exceeded them. All urban populations were highly admixed, and most of the variation was observed between individuals within each population.[413]
A large, community-based multicenter autosomal study considered representative samples from three urban communitiesSalvador,Bambuí, andPelotas, estimated European, mostly Iberian, ancestry to be 42.4%, 83.8% and 85.3%, respectively.[414]
An estimated 5 million Brazilians (2.3% of the total) were eligible for Portuguese citizenship.[415]
The community in New Zealand is much smaller and the 1,500 Portuguese people living there (although the numbers could be significantly higher) constitute about 0.03% of thepopulation. On 22 April 2010, theOffice of Ethnic Affairs officially recognizedPortuguese New Zealanders as a distinct community, marked by tying the 70th ribbon to Parliament's mooring stone in theParliament House Galleria. The Portuguese community organizes annual gatherings and celebrations, such asPortugal Day, and maintains a friendship association. Portuguese individuals were among the early settlers in New Zealand, although immigration declined gradually until the 1960s. After theCarnation Revolution, the community started to increase again.[420][421]
Portuguese influences are found throughout Asia, especially inMacau,Timor-Leste andIndia, all territories where the Portuguese maintainedcolonies.[422][423]
InPakistan a small Portuguese community numbers about 64 people,[447] even though other estimates point to 400 inKarachi.[448] Notable Portuguese Pakistani includeDilshad Vadsaria andBernadette Louise Dean. Beforepartition, it is estimated that theGoan community in Karachi numbered up to 15,000. The majority returned toGoa, to other Portuguese territories, or to the UK.[449] The Portuguese community contributed to themusical scene of pre-partition Karachi.[450] As of today, about 6,000 Goans remain in Pakistan, mainly in that city.[448]
Portuguese heritage continues inBangladesh: they were the firstEuropeans.[451] The Portuguese introduced Catholicism, now professed byabout 375,000 Bangladeshis.[452] This heritage added more than 1,500words to Bengali.[453] Incolonial times, the population may have reached 40,000 people[454][455] before most resettled elsewhere. Those who remained integrated inBangladeshi society. Notable examples of Portuguese influence in Bangladesh are their surnames, as well as Bangladesh's oldest church, theHoly Rosary Church in Dhaka.[456] As of now, the Portuguese community in Bangladesh consists of a few expatriates[457] and some descendants of the early settlers.
A small but growing Portuguese community – consisting mainly of recent expats and numbering about 3,500 people – is found in Japan,[458][459]South Korea,[460] China[461][462] andTaiwan, whose name in European texts until the 20th century –Formosa, meaning "beautiful (island)" – is Portuguese.[463]
The most important Portuguese community in Eastern Asia is in Macau, which was a Portuguese colony until 1999. It harbors more than 150,000 Portuguese citizens, accounting for 22.34% of the total, the largest concentration of Portuguese nationals in Asia as well as one of the most important in the world.[464] Notables includeGermano Guilherme [zh].
90% (2.5% children and grandchildren, eligible for Portuguese citizenship)
[488] Brazilians with Portuguese ancestry, of which an estimated 5,400,000 children and grandchildren of Portuguese nationals (eligible for Portuguese citizenship)
Statistics Portugal (2022)[581][582] Figure is only a population estimate of all residents of Portugal, and includes people of non-Portuguese ethnic origin
Portuguese literature has a long and varied history, with roots in theMiddle Ages. In the 16th century, Portugal's literature entered its "Golden Age", during which time poets such asLuís de Camões andFrancisco de Sá de Miranda were renowned.[583] Portuguese is often referred as to the"língua de Camões" (Camões's language), highlighting this author's importance in forging the national identity.[584]
19th authors includedAlmeida Garrett, who is credited with founding modern Portuguese literature. His writings reflect the political and social revolutions then taking place in Portugal, and his writing style is recognized as original.[586]
Portugal has contributed to human rights law. TheEuropean Convention on Human Rights, which was established in 1950 with the purpose of defending human rights and basic freedoms, was championed by Portugal.
During the Age of Discovery technical requirements fornavigation were a topic of great importance. Portuguese contributions to the scientific world included theCaravel – a light and fast ship designed for coastal navigation and thePortolan – a maritime map used from the early Middle Ages. The Portuguese also introduced theCompass rose on maps[591] and for guidance and navigation devices such as thecross-staff,nonius, thenautical astrolabe, and the Black Maple Sword.[clarification needed][592]
In 2001 Portugal ranked 28th among countries for contributions to the top 1% of the world's highly cited publications. Portugal ranked 32nd in the 2022Global Innovation Index.[594][595]
ThePresident is the head of the country and has significant political power. He is elected for a 5-year term bydirect vote, and he is the commander-in-chief of thearmed forces. His powers include the election of the Prime Minister and theCouncil of Ministers, in accordance withgeneral elections results. TheCouncil of State is a presidential oversight body, composed of six senior civilian officers, any former president elected since 1976, five members elected by theAssembly, and five directly appointed by the President.
The judiciary is independent of the executive and legislative branches and thenational Supreme Court is the court of last appeal. Military, administrative and fiscal courts are independent systemsce. A nine-member Constitutional Court verifies theconstitutionality of legislation.
Education has been gradually modernized and expanded since the 1970s. According to theProgram for International Student Assessment (PISA) in 2015, 15-year-old students were significantly above theOECD average for reading skills, mathematics and science.[597][598] Portugal has recognizeduniversities and business schools that have contributed international leaders[599] and which attract an increasing number of foreign students. Portugal is among the top senders and receivers country within theErasmus+ programme,[600] with more student entering than leaving.[601]
Portugal's economy ranked 34th on the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report in 2019.[602]
The majority of its trade is with the EU, the source and destination of more than 70% of the 2020 total.[603] International trade amounted to approximately 153.3 billion Euros in 2022. Spain is by far its largest trading partner, accounting for 11.61% of exports and 32.07% of imports.[604][605] Other important trading partners includeNAFTA (6.3% of exports and 2% of imports),PALOP (5.7% of exports and 2.5% of imports),Maghreb (3.7% of exports and 1.3% of import andMercosul (1.4% of exports and 2.5% of imports).
The Portuguese currency is theeuro (€). The country has been part of theEurozone since its founding.
Bacalhau codfish is one of the epitomes of Portuguese cuisine
The oldest cookbook on Portuguese cooking is from the 16th century,Livro de Cozinha da Infanta D. Maria de Portugal[608] (Crown-Princess Maria'scookbook). It describes recipes made of beef, fish, fowl, and other traditional ingredients. Even in theHigh Middle Ages, agriculture had already a regional character. Smallpeasant allotments and largelatifundia were cultivated. The latter are particularly characteristic of southern regions, which were annexed as a result of the Reconquista and distributed amongfeudal lords, whereas further north, agricultural lots were typically smaller.
Peixinhos da horta, a typical dish from Lisbon from which Japanesetempura derivesPastéis de bacalhau, a typicalpetisco found everywhere in PortugalChamuças (samosas) are an example of dish of foreign origin today widely popular in Portugal. They were first brought to the country during theAge of Discovery in the 15th century.
Portuguese cuisine relies on meats (pork, cattle, chicken andgame among others).
High seafood (fish,crustaceans includinglobster, crab,shrimp,prawns, and octopus) consumption is supported by rich fisheries along Portugal's1,800 km of coastline (1,115 miles). This is balanced by vegetables, legumes, and sweets (notably, cakes). The diet is rich in carbohydrates that often includes fresh breads likebroa, rice, and potatoes.[609][610][611] The Portuguese lead the Europeans in rice consumption per capita, 16.1 kg per year.[612] Rice specialities include,Arroz de Tamboril (Monkfish rice),Arroz de Pato (duck rice) andArroz de Cabidela (rooster rice) enjoy high popularity.[613] Portuguese are among the largest European potato consumers, consuming 62 kg potatoes per capita per year,.[614] Portugal has one of the largest livestock EU populations.[615]
António-Maria De Oliveira Bello, also known as Olleboma, wrote "Culinária Portuguesa" (Portuguese Cuisine) in 1936.[616] Portuguese cuisine also draws fromMediterranean sources – Portugal is among the countries recognised byUNESCO for itsMediterranean diet – and from all over the world, especially from the onetime Portuguese Empire.
Many dishes containcinnamon,vanilla, lemon, orange,anise,clove, andallspice. Portuguese merchants introduced oranges in Middle Eastern countries. Today theTurkish ("Portakal"),Farsi (نارنجی or "portaqal") andArabic (البرتقالي or "lburtuqaliiu") words for orange all reflect a Portuguese origin. This term extended to the Ottoman Empire and beyond, today appearing in languages such asRomanian (portocale),Albanian (portokalli),Greek (πορτοκάλι-portokáli) andGeorgian (ფორთოხალი-portokhali).
One popular dish isFeijoada.Feijão is Portuguese forbean. Withfeijoadasalada de tomate andvinagrete ormolho vinagrete are sometimes served. The Portuguese have 365 ways of cookingcod (bacalhau). Other emblematic Portuguese traditional dishes areCozido à portuguesa (Portuguese stew) andCaldo verde (green soup). The most globally appreciated pastry ispastel de nata, sometimes known asNatas orPortuguese custard tarts.
Portuguese architecture encompasses work in Portugal and its former colonies, reflecting these diverse cultures.Romans andMoors each left marks. Epitomes of the Portuguese architectural style areRomanesque,Gothic and, above all,Manueline style.Baroque andRococo were influential. After the1755 Lisbon earthquake thePombaline style (now candidate to become a listedUNESCO heritage site) took over and is still visible, especially inEstremadura (the region of the capital city,Lisbon). Other influences include Romanesque evolving intocontemporary styles. TheFundação Calouste Gulbenkian, built in the 1960s is one of defining examples of 20th-century Portuguese architecture.
Fromfolk music toclassical, music has always played an important role inPortuguese culture. From traditional songs from thenorth of the country to the rhythms of Portuguese-influencedsamba, fromfado toPortuguese pop-rock, Portuguese music has delighted listeners all over the world.
The 16th century brought musical influences such as the stringed instrument, theKrencong, which traveled from Portugal to Indonesia and made a lasting contribution to Indonesian culture. Another instrument of Portuguese origin that gained acclaim in Hawaiian music is theukulele, which originated onMadeira Island.
Fado is the leading modern genre. Originating inLisbon in the 19th century, it symbolizes Portuguese culture.Fado songs often express love,saudade (longing) and difficulties in life. The great ambassador of Portuguese fado,Amália Rodrigues, had carried the music across the world during the 1950s and 1960s. Musicians such asMariza,Ana Moura andCristina Branco,Katia Guerreiro modernized and invigorated this musical art alive. The genre is one of two Portuguese music traditions in theUNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists, along withCante Alentejano.
Besidesfado, the country produced other popular music, including Portuguese Pop Rock, developed in the 1980s and 1990s by artists such asXutos & Pontapés,Rui Veloso, and theMadredeus. The latter are noted for their innovative use of the traditionalPortuguese guitar.
Portuguese cinema appeared at the end of the 19th century, viasilent films. In the 1920s that cinema became an important cultural and artistic element. The first Portuguese film, shot in Porto, was directed byAurélio da Paz dos Reis [pt] in 1896. In homage to the Departure of the Workers from the Lumière Factory (La Sortie de l'usine Lumière à Lyon) byAuguste and Louis Lumière shot in 1895, he filmed the Departure of the Workers from the Confiança Factory (Saída do Pessoal Operário da Fábrica Confiança).[620]
José Leitão de Barros pioneered the Portuguese film industry, producing and directing silent films starting in the 1910s.[620] One of the first notable female actresses wasCremilda de Oliveira.Manoel de Oliveira extended de la Velle's legacy. His film "Aniki-Bóbó (1942), is notable for its innovation and vision of adolescence. Manoel de Oliveira made more than 30 films, includingI'm Going home (2001), produced at age 93.
In the 1950s, attention pivoted to technically advancedHollywood films. In the 1960s, attention returned home. In the 1960s innovative cinema flourished, notably with directorFernando Lopes. He made films that touched on themes of politics and religion, generating debate and controversy at the time. His filmBelarmino (1964), won theGolden Lion at that year'sVenice exhibition.
Despite national success, Portuguese films were largely ignored by international festivals until the emergence of directors such asMarco Martins.
In 1989, the first of a new wave of filmmakers, Pedro Costa, presentedO Sangue. This film, along with its follow-up efforts in the 90s,Ossos andCasa de Lava, shaped a distinctive style.
Portuguese directors have influenced the international film industry. Manoel de Oliveira was the first Portuguese director to compete for thePalme d'Or at Cannes in 1985. Since then, other Portuguese filmmakers have competed at major international festivals.
^Only people legally registered as living in Portugal and not holding Portuguese nationality (thus excluding naturalised citizens and descendants of immigrants) are taken into account.
^Jarnagin, Laura (2012),Portuguese and Luso-Asian Legacies in Southeast Asia, 1511–2011: Culture and identity in the Luso-Asian world, tenacities & plasticities. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies., p. 268
^Pop, Ioan-Aurel (1996).Romanians and Hungarians from the 9th to the 14th century.Romanian Cultural Foundation.ISBN0-88033-440-1.We could say that contemporary Europe is made up of three large groups of peoples, divided on the criteria of their origin and linguistic affiliation. They are the following: the Romanic or neo-Latin peoples (Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, French, Romanians, etc.), the Germanic peoples (Germans proper, English, Dutch, Danes, Norwegians, Swedes, Icelanders, etc.), and the Slavic peoples (Russians, Ukrainians, Belorussians, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, Slovenians, etc.
^Gamito, Teresa Júdice (9 September 2004)."The Celts in Portugal".E-Keltoi Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies.
^"the Indo-European but clearly non-Celtic language that we today call Lusitanian.(...)": Book Reviews: Alejandro G. Sinner, Javier Velaza (eds.).Palaeohispanic Languages and Epigraphies, Oxford University Press, 2019, Juan Luis García Alonso, University of Salamanca, Spain,Journal of Language Relationship, № 19/3-4, 2021
^Mathieson, Iain; Lazaridis, Iosif; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Patterson, Nick; Alpaslan Roodenberg, Songul; Harney, Eadaoin; Stewardson, Kristin; Fernandes, Daniel; Novak, Mario; Sirak, Kendra; Gamba, Cristina; Jones, Eppie R.; Llamas, Bastien; Dryomov, Stanislav; Pickrell, Joseph; Arsuaga, Juan Luis; De Castro, Jose Maria Bermudez; Carbonell, Eudald; Gerritsen, Fokke; Khokhlov, Aleksandr; Kuznetsov, Pavel; Lozano, Marina; Meller, Harald; Mochalov, Oleg; Moiseyev, Vayacheslav; Rojo Guerra, Manuel A.; Roodenberg, Jacob; Verges, Josep Maria; et al. (2015)."Eight thousand years of natural selection in Europe".bioRxiv 016477.doi:10.1101/016477.
^"OS CELTAS".abemdanacao.blogs.sapo.pt. Retrieved20 April 2023.
^Cunliffe, Barry (2008).Europe Between the Oceans: Themes and Variations, 9000 BC-AD 1000 (First printed in paperback 2011. ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 254–258.ISBN978-0-300-17086-3.
^Mallory, James P. (2013)."The Indo-Europeanization of Atlantic Europe". In J. T. Koch; B. Cunliffe (eds.).Celtic From the West 2: Rethinking the Bronze Age and the Arrival of Indo–European in Atlantic Europe. Oxford: Oxbow Books. pp. 17–40. Archived fromthe original on 26 March 2019. Retrieved4 January 2020.
^"O Barco Poveiro" – Octávio Lixa Filgueiras, 1ª edição 1966
^Ripoll López, Gisela (1989)."Características generales del poblamiento y la arqueología funeraria visigoda de Hispania".Espacio, Tiempo y Forma, S. I, Prehist. y Arqueol., t. 2. pp. 389–418. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 12 August 2010. Retrieved27 November 2017.En resumen se puede considerar que el pueblo visigodo—sin diferenciar la población civil de la militar— representó de un uno a un dos por ciento sobre la totalidad de la población de Hispania.
^Quiroga, Jorge López (January 2017)."(PDF) IN TEMPORE SUEBORUM. The time of the Suevi in Gallaecia (411–585 AD)".Jorge López Quiroga-Artemio M. Martínez Tejera (Coord.): In Tempore Sueborum. The Time of the Sueves in Gallaecia (411–585 Ad). The First Medieval Kingdom of the West, Ourense. Academia.edu. Retrieved21 January 2020.
^Numa breve cronologia: 1526 – Alvará de João III, de 13 de Março de 1526, proibiu que os ciganos entrassem no reino, e ordenou que saíssem os que cá estavam; 1538 – Nova lei de 26 de Novembro desse ano, ordenando a sua expulsão; 1592 – Lei de 28 de Agosto agravou as penas contra os ciganos que dentro de 4 meses não saíssem de Portugal;Ordenações Filipinas, proíbindo a entrada no Reino; 1606 – Alvará de 7 de Janeiro exigindo a observância das Ordenações, com a mesma pena agravada com degredo para as galés e com severas cominações para os magistrados remissos; 1614 – Nova carta régia de 3 de Dezembro impedindo a sua entrada no Reino; 1618 – Carta régia de 28 de Março em que o monarca mandava averiguar se no Reino andavam ciganos com «traje e língua diferente dos naturais»; 1654 – D. João IV mandou prender os ciganos que havia no Reino e embarcá-los para Maranhão, Cabo Verde e São Tomé; 1718 – D. João V, em 10 de Dezembro de 1718, determinou a expulsão dos ciganos. Ver Joel Serrão,Dicionário de História de Portugal, ed. de 2006.
^"Auto Da Fé". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved21 January 2020.
^Ribeiro, Ângelo; Hermano, José (2004),História de Portugal I – A Formação do Território [History of Portugal: The Formation of the Territory] (in Portuguese), QuidNovi,ISBN989-554-106-6
^Arnaiz-Villena A, Martínez-Laso J, Gómez-Casado E, Díaz-Campos N, Santos P, Martinho A, Breda-Coimbra H (14 May 2014). "Relatedness among Basques, Portuguese, Spaniards, and Algerians studied by HLA allelic frequencies and haplotypes".Immunogenetics.47 (1):37–43.doi:10.1007/s002510050324.PMID9382919.S2CID11750235.
^abGalbraith W, Wagner MC, Chao J, Abaza M, Ernst LA, Nederlof MA, et al. (1997). "Imaging cytometry by multiparameter fluorescence".Cytometry.12 (7):579–596.doi:10.1002/cyto.990120702.PMID1782829.
^Gonçalves, Rita; Freitas, Ana; Branco, Marta; Rosa, Alexandra; Fernandes, Ana T.; Zhivotovsky, Lev A.; Underhill, Peter A.; Kivisild, Toomas; Brehm, António (19 April 2005). "Y-chromosome Lineages from Portugal, Madeira and Açores Record Elements of Sephardim and Berber Ancestry".Annals of Human Genetics.69 (4):443–454.doi:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2005.00161.x.hdl:10400.13/3018.ISSN0003-4800.PMID15996172.S2CID3229760.
^Registo Civil, Instituto dos Registos e Notariado, Ministério da Justiça."Composição do nome" [Composition of the name].IRN.Justica.gov.pt (in European Portuguese). Retrieved3 August 2022.«O nome completo deve compor-se, no máximo, de seis vocábulos gramaticais, simples ou compostos, dos quais só dois podem corresponder ao nome próprio e quatro a apelidos.»
^"FAQs e Dicas – SPIE". Archived fromthe original on 14 October 2013. Retrieved13 September 2013. (a fonte utilizada enuncia "100 apelidos", mas a listagem traz apenas 96).
^Direcção Geral dos Assuntos Consulares e Comunidades Portuguesas do Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros (1999), Dados Estatísticos sobre as Comunidades Portuguesas, IC/CP – DGACCP/DAX/DID – Maio 1999.
^Tomashevich, George Vid (1982). "BALKAN JEWS AND THEIR NEIGHBORS BEFORE, DURING AND SINCE THE HOLOCAUST: A Study in Ethno-Religious (and Ideological) Relations".Humboldt Journal of Social Relations.10 (1):339–363.ISSN0160-4341.JSTOR23261871.
^"Italy".Sephardic Genealogy. Retrieved12 April 2023.
^U.S. Department of State, "A GUIDE TO THE UNITED STATES' HISTORY OF RECOGNITION, DIPLOMATIC, AND CONSULAR RELATIONS, BY COUNTRY, SINCE 1776: PORTUGAL",[1]
^Ponta-Garça, Nelson, director.Portuguese in New England. 2016.
^Martin, Andrea."Carpenter Street Underpass"(PDF).Springfield Railroads Improvement Project. US Department of Transportation Federal Railroad Administration and the Illinois Historic Preservation Agency. Retrieved23 May 2018.
^Baganha, Maria Ioannis Benis (1991). "The Social Mobility of Portuguese Immigrants in the United States at the Turn of the Nineteenth Century".The International Migration Review.25 (2):277–302.doi:10.1177/019791839102500202.JSTOR2546289.S2CID147321899.
^Hamilton, W B (1981). Canada and its provinces - the origins of their names - as noted in The Macmillan Book of Canadian Place Names (Report). Natural Resources Canada/CMSS/Information Management. p. 105.doi:10.4095/298053.
^HETTIARATCHI, D. E. (1965). "Influence of Portuguese on the Sinhalese Language".The Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland.9 (2):229–238.ISSN0304-2235.JSTOR45377565.
^Glaser, Clive (2013), Morier-Genoud, Eric; Cahen, Michel (eds.), "The Making of a Portuguese Community in South Africa, 1900–1994",Imperial Migrations: Colonial Communities and Diaspora in the Portuguese World, London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 213–238,doi:10.1057/9781137265005_9,ISBN978-1-137-26500-5
^See the analysis of King, D.A., The scientific Impact of Nations – What difference countries for their research spending,Nature, vol. 430, 15 July 2004
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