Portuguese maritime explorations resulted in numerous territories and maritime routes recorded by the Portuguese on journeys during the 15th and 16th centuries. Portuguese sailors were at the vanguard of European exploration, chronicling and mapping the coasts of Africa and Asia, then known as theEast Indies, Canada and Brazil (theWest Indies), in what became known as theAge of Discovery.
Methodical expeditions started in 1419 along the coast of West Africa under the sponsorship of princeHenry the Navigator, whenceBartolomeu Dias reached theCape of Good Hope and entered the Indian Ocean in 1488. Ten years later, in 1498,Vasco da Gama led the first fleet around Africa to theIndian subcontinent, arriving inCalicut and starting a maritime route from Portugal to India. Portuguese explorations then proceeded to southeast Asia, where they reached Japan in 1542, forty-four years after their first arrival in India.[1] In 1500, the Portuguese noblemanPedro Álvares Cabral became the first Europeanto discover Brazil.[2]
In 1297, KingDinis of Portugal took personal interest in the development of exports and organized that of surplus foreign production to European countries. On May 10, 1293, he instituted a maritime insurance fund for Portuguese traders living in theCounty of Flanders, which were to pay certain sums according to tonnage, accrued to them when necessary. Wine and dried fruits fromAlgarve were sold in Flanders and England, salt fromSetúbal andAveiro was a profitable export to northern Europe, and leather andkermes, a scarlet dye, were also exported. Portugal imported armor and munitions, fine clothes, and several manufactured products from Flanders and Italy.[3]
In 1317, King Dinis made an agreement withGenoese merchant sailorManuel Pessanha (Pessagno), appointing him firstAdmiral with trade privileges with his homeland in return for twenty warships and crews, with the goal of defending the country against Muslim pirate raids, thus laying the basis for thePortuguese Navy and establishment of a Genoese merchant community in Portugal.[4] Forced to reduce their activities in the Black Sea, theRepublic of Genoa had turned to North Africa for trade in wheat and olive oil and a search for gold – navigating also into the ports ofBruges (Flanders) and England. Genoese and Florentine communities were established in Portugal, which profited from the enterprise and financial experience of these rivals of theRepublic of Venice.[citation needed]
In the second half of the fourteenth century outbreaks ofbubonic plague led to severe depopulation: the economy was extremely localized in a few towns, and migration from the country led to the abandonment of agricultural land and an increase in rural unemployment. Only the sea offered opportunities, with most people settling in fishing and trading areas along the coast.[5] Between 1325 and 1357Afonso IV of Portugal granted public funding to raise a propercommercial fleet and ordered the first maritime explorations, with the help ofGenoese, under command of admiral Manuel Pessanha. In 1341 theCanary Islands, already known to Genoese seafarers, were officially rediscovered under the patronage of the Portuguese king, but in 1344 Castile disputed ownership of them, further propelling the Portuguese naval efforts.[6] The first victims of slave raids by Portuguese and Spanish were theGuanches of the Canary Islands, a people of Berber origin, who put up fierce resistance but were reduced to near extinction by pillaging and enslavement.[7][8]
In 1415, the Portuguese occupied the North African city ofCeuta to gain a foothold in Morocco and control shipping through the Strait of Gibraltar. They also hoped to extendChristianity and provide an outlet for Portuguese nobles looking to gain riches and honor in war. Among the participants of the action was the young PrinceHenry the Navigator. Appointed governor of theOrder of Christ in 1420, while personally holding profitable monopolies on resources in Algarve, he took the lead role in encouraging Portuguese maritime exploration until his death in 1460.[9] He invested in sponsoring voyages down the coast ofMauritania, gathering a group of merchants, shipowners, and other stakeholders interested in new opportunities for maritime trade. Later his brother PrincePedro granted him aroyal monopoly of all profits from trading within the areas discovered.
In 1418, two of Henry's captains,João Gonçalves Zarco andTristão Vaz Teixeira were driven by a storm toPorto Santo an uninhabited island off the coast of Africa which may have been known to Europeans since the 14th century. In 1419 Zarco and Teixeira made a landfall onMadeira. They returned withBartolomeu Perestrelo, and Portuguese settlement of the islands began. There, wheat and later sugarcane were cultivated, as in Algarve, by the Genoese, becoming profitable activities. This helped both them and Prince Henry become wealthier.
A Portuguese attempt to captureGrand Canary, one of the nearbyCanary Islands, which had been partially settled by Spaniards in 1402 was unsuccessful and met with protestations from Castile.[10] Although the exact details are uncertain,cartographic evidence suggests theAzores were probably discovered in 1427 by Portuguese ships sailing under Henry's direction, and settled in 1432, suggesting that the Portuguese were able to navigate at least 745 miles (1,200 km) from the Portuguese coast.[11]
At around the same time as the unsuccessful attack on the Canary Islands, the Portuguese began to explore the North African coast. Sailors feared what lay beyondCape Bojador at the time, as Europeans did not know what lay beyond on the African coast, and did not know whether it was possible to return once it was passed. Henry wished to know how far the Muslim territories in Africa extended, and whether it was possible to reach the source of the lucrative tran-Saharan caravan gold trade and perhaps to join forces with the long-lost Christian kingdom ofPrester John that was rumoured to exist somewhere to the east.[12][13]
In 1434, one of Prince Henry's captains,Gil Eanes, passed this obstacle. Once this psychological barrier had been crossed, it became easier to probe further along the coast.[14] Within two decades of exploration, Portuguese ships had bypassed theSahara. Westward exploration continued over the same period:Diogo de Silves discovered the Azores island ofSanta Maria in 1427 and in the following years Portuguese mariners discovered and settled the rest of the Azores.
Henry suffered a serious setback in 1437 afterthe failure of an expedition to capture Tangier, having encouraged his brother, KingEdward, to mount an overland attack from Ceuta. The Portuguese army was defeated and only escaped destruction by surrenderingPrince Ferdinand, the king's youngest brother.[16] After the defeat at Tangier, Henry retired toSagres on the southern tip of Portugal where he continued to direct Portuguese exploration until his death in 1460.
In 1443,Prince Pedro, Henry's brother, granted him the monopoly of navigation, war, and trade in the lands south ofCape Bojador. Later this monopoly would be backed by thePapal bullsDum Diversas (1452) andRomanus Pontifex (1455), granting Portugal a trade monopoly for the newly discovered countries.[17]
Thecaravel, an existing ship type, was used in exploration from about 1440. It had a number of advantageous characteristics. These included shallow draft, which was suitable for approaching unknown coasts, and an efficient combination of hull shape (including a rudder attached to the sternpost, unlike some other contemporary types with side-mounted steering oars) andlateen rig, which gave a fast-sailing vessel which had betterwindward sailing ability than other vessels of the time.[15]
Portuguese navigators reached ever more southerlylatitudes, advancing at an average rate of one degree a year.[18]Senegal andCape Verde Peninsula were reached in 1445. In the same year, the first overseasfeitoria (trading post) was established under Henry's direction, on the island ofArguin off the coast ofMauritania. It was created to attract Muslim traders and monopolize the business in the routes traveled in North Africa, starting the chain of Portuguesefeitorias along the coast. In 1446,Álvaro Fernandes pushed on almost as far as present-daySierra Leone, and theGulf of Guinea was reached in the 1460s.
As a result of the first meager returns of the African explorations, in 1469 kingAfonso V granted the monopoly of trade in part of theGulf of Guinea to merchantFernão Gomes, for an annual payment of 200,000reals. Gomes was also required to explore 100 leagues (480 km) of the coast each year for five years.[19] He employed explorersJoão de Santarém,Pedro Escobar,Lopo Gonçalves,Fernão do Pó, andPedro de Sintra, and exceeded the requirement. Under his sponsorship, Portuguese explorers crossed the equator into the Southern Hemisphere and found the islands in the Gulf of Guinea, includingSão Tomé and Príncipe.[20]
In 1471, Gomes' explorers reachedElmina on the Gold Coast (present dayGhana), and discovered a thriving overland gold trade between the natives and visiting Arab and Berber traders. Gomes established his own trading post there, which became known as “A Mina” ("The Mine"). Trade between Elmina and Portugal grew in the next decade.[21] In 1481, the recently crownedJoão II decided to buildSão Jorge da Mina fort (Elmina Castle) and factory to protect this trade, which was then held again as a royal monopoly.
In 1482,Diogo Cão discovered the mouth of theCongo River. In 1486, Cão continued toCape Cross, in present-dayNamibia, near theTropic of Capricorn.
In 1488,Bartolomeu Dias rounded theCape of Good Hope near the southern tip of Africa, disproving the view that had existed sincePtolemy that the Indian Ocean was separate from the Atlantic. Also at this time,Pêro da Covilhã reached India via Egypt andYemen, and visited Madagascar. He recommended further exploration of the southern route.[22]
As the Portuguese explored the coastlines of Africa, they left behind a series ofpadrões, stone crosses inscribed with the Portuguese coat of arms marking their claims,[23] and built forts and trading posts. From these bases, the Portuguese engaged profitably in the slave and gold trades. Portugal enjoyed a virtual monopoly of theAtlantic slave trade for over a century, exporting around 800 slaves annually. Most were brought to the Portuguese capital Lisbon, where it is estimated black Africans came to constitute 10 percent of the population.[24]
In 1492Christopher Columbus's discovery for Spain of theNew World, which he believed to be Asia, led to disputes between the Spanish and Portuguese. These were eventually settled by theTreaty of Tordesillas in 1494 which divided the world outside of Europe in an exclusiveduopoly between the Portuguese and the Spanish, along a north–southmeridian 370leagues, or 970 miles (1,560 km), west of the Cape Verde islands. However, as it was not possible at the time to correctly measurelongitude, the exact boundary was disputed by the two countries until 1777.[25]
The completion of these negotiations with Spain is one of several reasons proposed by historians for why it took nine years for the Portuguese to follow up on Dias's voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, though it has also been speculated that other voyages were, in fact, taking place in secret during this time.[26][27] Whether or not this was the case, the long-standing Portuguese goal of finding a sea route to Asia was finally achieved in a ground-breaking voyage commanded byVasco da Gama.
Vasco da Gama's squadron left Portugal on 8 July 1497, consisting of four ships and a crew of 170 men. It rounded the Cape and continued along the coast of Southeast Africa, where a local pilot was brought on board who guided them across the Indian Ocean, reachingCalicut in western India in May 1498.[28] After some conflict, da Gama got an ambiguous letter for trade with theZamorin of Calicut, leaving there some men to establish a trading post.
Vasco da Gama's voyage to Calicut was the starting point for deployment of Portuguesefeitoria posts along the east coast of Africa and in the Indian Ocean.[29] Shortly after, theCasa da Índia was established in Lisbon to administer the royal monopoly of navigation and trade. Exploration soon lost private support, and took place under the exclusive patronage of the Portuguese Crown.
The second voyage to India was dispatched in 1500 underPedro Álvares Cabral. While following the same south-westerly route across the Atlantic Ocean as da Gama (to take advantage of the most favorable winds), Cabral made landfall on the Brazilian coast. This was probably an accidental discovery, but it has been speculated that the Portuguese secretly knew of Brazil's existence and that it lay on their side of the Tordesillas line.[30] Cabral recommended to the Portuguese King that the land be settled, and two follow-up voyages were sent in 1501 and 1503. The land was found to be abundant inpau-brasil, orbrazilwood, from which it later inherited its name, but the failure to find gold or silver meant that for the time being Portuguese efforts were concentrated on India.[31]
The aim of Portugal in the Indian Ocean was to ensure the monopoly of thespice trade. Taking advantage of the rivalries that pitted Hindus against Muslims, the Portuguese established several forts and trading posts between 1500 and 1510. InEast Africa, smallIslamic states along the coast ofMozambique,Kilwa,Brava,Sofala andMombasa were destroyed, or became either subjects or allies of Portugal.Pêro da Covilhã had reachedEthiopia (via the Indian Ocean coast inSomalia, traveling secretly overland, as early as 1490;[32] a diplomatic mission reached the ruler of that nation on October 19, 1520.
In 1500, the second fleet to India (which also made landfall in Brazil) explored the East African coast inSoutheast Africa, whereDiogo Dias discovered the island that he named St. Lawrence, later known asMadagascar. This fleet, commanded byPedro Álvares Cabral, arrived atCalicut in September, where the first trade agreement in India was signed. For a short time a Portuguese factory was installed there, but it was attacked by Muslims on December 16 and several Portuguese, including the scribePero Vaz de Caminha, died. After bombarding Calicut as a retaliation, Cabral went to rivalKochi.
Profiting from the rivalry between the Maharaja ofKochi and theZamorin of Calicut, the Portuguese were well received and seen as allies, getting a permit to build afort (Fort Manuel) and a trading post that was the first European settlement in India. There in 1503 they built theSt. Francis Church.[33][34] In 1502 Vasco da Gama took the island of Kilwa on the coast of Tanzania, where in 1505 the first fort of Portuguese East Africa was built to protect ships sailing in the East Indian trade.
In 1505, kingManuel I of Portugal appointedFrancisco de Almeida firstViceroy ofPortuguese India for a three-year period, starting the Portuguese government in the east, headquartered at Kochi. That year the Portuguese conqueredKannur where they foundedSt. Angelo Fort. The Viceroy's sonLourenço de Almeida arrived inCeylon (modern Sri Lanka), where he discovered the source ofcinnamon. Finding it divided into seven rival kingdoms, he established a defense pact with thekingdom of Kotte and extended the control in coastal areas, where in 1517 was founded the fortress of Colombo.[35]
In 1506, a Portuguese fleet under the command ofTristão da Cunha andAfonso de Albuquerque, conqueredSocotra at the entrance of theRed Sea andMuscat in 1507, having failed to conquerOrmuz, following a strategy intended to close those entrances into the Indian Ocean. That same year, fortresses were built in the Island of Mozambique and Mombasa on the Kenyan coast.Madagascar was partly explored byTristão da Cunha and in the same yearMauritius was discovered.
In 1509, the Portuguese won the seaBattle of Diu against the combined forces of theOttoman SultanBeyazid II, theSultan of Gujarat, theMamlûk Sultan of Cairo, the Samoothiri Raja ofKozhikode, theVenetian Republic, and theRagusan Republic (Dubrovnik). The Portuguese victory was critical for its strategy of control of the Indian Ocean: the Turks and Egyptians withdrew their navies from India, leaving the seas to the Portuguese, setting its trade dominance for almost a century, and greatly assisting the growth of the Portuguese Empire. It also marked the beginning of European colonial dominance in Asia. A secondBattle of Diu in 1538 finally ended Ottoman ambitions in India, and confirmed Portuguese hegemony in the Indian Ocean.
Under the government of Albuquerque,Goa was taken from theBijapur sultanate in 1510 with the help of HinduprivateerTimoji. Coveted for being the best port in the region, mainly for the commerce in Arabian horses for theDeccan sultanates, it allowed the Portuguese to move on from their initial guest stay in Cochin. Despite constant attacks, Goa became the seat of the Portuguese government, under the name ofEstado da India (State of India), with the conquest triggering compliance of neighbor kingdoms:Gujarat and Calicut sent embassies, offering alliances and grants to fortify. Albuquerque began that year in Goa the first Portuguesemint in India, taking the opportunity to announce the achievement.[36][37]
In April 1511 Albuquerque sailed toMalacca in modern-day Malaysia,[38] the most important eastern point in the trade network, where Malay met Gujarati, Chinese, Japanese, Javanese, Bengali, Persian and Arabic traders, described byTomé Pires as invaluable. The port of Malacca became then the strategic base for Portuguese trade expansion with China and Southeast Asia, under the Portuguese rule in India with its capital atGoa. To defend the city a strong fort was erected, called the "A Famosa", where one of its gates still remains today. Learning of Siamese ambitions over Malacca, Albuquerque immediately sentDuarte Fernandes on a diplomatic mission to thekingdom of Siam (modern Thailand), where he was the first European to arrive, establishing amicable relations between the two kingdoms.[39] In November that year, getting to know the location of the so-called "Spice Islands" in the Moluccas, Albuquerque sent an expedition to find them. Led byAntónio de Abreu, the expedition arrived in early 1512. Abreu went by Ambon, while his deputy commanderFrancisco Serrão advanced toTernate, where a Portuguese fort was allowed. That same year, in Indonesia, the Portuguese tookMakassar, reachingTimor in 1514. Departing from Malacca,Jorge Álvares came to southern China in 1513. This visit followed the arrival inGuangzhou, where trade was established. Later a trading post atMacau would be established.
The Portuguese empire expanded into the Persian Gulf as Portugal contested control of the spice trade with theOttoman Empire. In 1515,Afonso de Albuquerque conquered theHuwala state ofHormuz at the head of the Persian Gulf, establishing it as a vassal state.Aden, however, resisted Albuquerque's expedition in that same year, and another attempt by Albuquerque's successorLopo Soares de Albergaria in 1516.Bahrain was captured in 1521, when a force led byAntónio Correia defeated theJabrid King,Muqrin ibn Zamil.[40] In a shifting series of alliances, the Portuguese dominated much of the southern Persian Gulf for the next hundred years. Theisland of Mozambique became a strategic port on the regular maritime route linking Lisbon to Goa, andFort São Sebastião and a hospital were built there. In the Azores, the Armada of the Islands protected ships from the Indies en route to Lisbon.
In 1525, afterFernão de Magalhães's expedition (1519–1522), Spain under Charles V sent an expedition to colonize theMoluccas islands, claiming that they were in his zone of theTreaty of Tordesillas, since there was not a set limit to the east. Led byGarcía Jofre de Loaísa, the expedition reached the Moluccas, docking atTidore. Conflict with the Portuguese already established in nearby Ternate was inevitable, starting nearly a decade of skirmishes. An agreement was reached only with theTreaty of Zaragoza (1529), which gave the Moluccas to Portugal and the Philippines to Spain.
In 1530,John III organized the colonization ofBrazil around 15capitanias hereditárias ("hereditary captainships"), that were given to anyone who wanted to administer and explore them, to overcome the need to defend the territory, since an expedition under the command ofGonçalo Coelho in 1503 had found the French making incursions on the land. That same year, there was a new expedition fromMartim Afonso de Sousa with orders to patrol the whole Brazilian coast, banish the French, and create the first colonial towns:São Vicente on the coast, andSão Paulo near the edge of the inland plateau (planalto) and theSerra do Mar. From the 15 original captainships, only two,Pernambuco and São Vicente, prospered. With permanent settlement came the establishment of the sugar cane industry and its intensive labor demands which were met withNative American and later African slaves.
In 1534, Gujarat was occupied by theMughals and the SultanBahadur Shah of Gujarat was forced to sign theTreaty of Bassein (1534) with the Portuguese, establishing an alliance to regain the country, giving in exchangeDaman,Diu,Mumbai, andBassein.[41] In 1538 the fortress of Diu was again surrounded by Ottoman ships. Another siege failed in 1547, putting an end to Ottoman ambitions and confirming Portuguese hegemony.
In 1542 Jesuit missionaryFrancis Xavier arrived in Goa at the service of KingJohn III of Portugal, in charge of anApostolic Nunciature. At the same timeFrancisco Zeimoto,António Mota, and other traders arrived inJapan for the first time. According toFernão Mendes Pinto, who claimed to be in this journey, they arrived atTanegashima, where the locals were impressed by Europeanfirearms, which would be immediately made by the Japanese on a large scale.[42] In 1557 the Chinese authorities allowed the Portuguese to settle inMacau through an annual payment, creating a warehouse in the triangular trade between China, Japan and Europe. In 1570 the Portuguese bought a Japanese port where they founded the city ofNagasaki,[43] thus creating a trading center that for many years was the port from Japan to the world.
Portugal established trading ports at far-flung locations likeGoa,Ormuz,Malacca,Kochi, theMaluku Islands,Macau, andNagasaki. Guarding its trade from both European and Asian competitors, Portugal dominated not only the trade between Asia and Europe, but also much of the trade between different regions of Asia, such as India, Indonesia, China, and Japan.Jesuit missionaries, such as theFrancis Xavier, followed the Portuguese to spreadChristianity to Asia with mixed success.
{{cite encyclopedia}}:Missing or empty|title= (help){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) FATHER ESTEVAO CACELLA'S REPORT ON BHUTAN IN 1627.
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