Portuguese-speaking people or nations are known asLusophone (lusófono). As the result of expansion during colonial times, a cultural presence of Portuguese speakers is also found around the world. Portuguese is part of theIbero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects ofVulgar Latin in the medievalKingdom of Galicia and theCounty of Portugal, and has kept someCeltic phonology.[7][8]
Portuguese language structure reflects its Latin roots and centuries of outside influences. These are seen inphonology,orthography,grammar, andvocabulary. Phonologically, Portuguese has a rich system ofnasal vowels, complex consonant variations, and different types ofguttural R and other sounds in European and Brazilian varieties. Its spelling, based like English on theLatin alphabet, is largelyphonemic but is influenced byetymology and tradition.Recent spelling reforms attempted to create a unified spelling for the Portuguese language acrossall countries that use it. Portuguese grammar retains manyLatin verb forms and has some unique features such as thefuture subjunctive and thepersonal infinitive. The vocabulary is derived mostly from Latin but also includesnumerous loanwords [pt] from Celtic, Germanic, Arabic, African, Amerindian, and Asian languages, resulting from historical contact including wars, trade, andcolonization.
When theRomans arrived in theIberian Peninsula in 216 BC, they brought with them theLatin language, from which allRomance languages are descended. The language was spread by Roman commoners, merchants, and soldiers, who built Roman cities mostly near the settlements of previousCeltic civilizations established long before the Roman arrivals. For that reason, the language has kept a relevant substratum of much older,Atlantic EuropeanMegalithic Culture[9] andCeltic culture,[10] part of theHispano-Celtic group of ancient languages.[11] In Latin, the Portuguese language is known aslusitana or(latina) lusitanica, after theLusitanians, a pre-Celtic tribe that lived in the territory of present-day Portugal and Spain that adopted the Latin language as Roman settlers moved in. This is also the origin of theluso- prefix, seen in terms like "Lusophone".
Between AD 409 and AD 711, as theRoman Empire collapsed inWestern Europe, the Iberian Peninsula was conquered byGermanic peoples of theMigration Period. The occupiers, most notablySuebi[12][13] but alsoVisigoths andBuri[14] originally spokeGermanic languages. Quickly, they adopted late Roman culture and theVulgar Latin dialects of the peninsula and over the next 300 years totally integrated into the local population. Some Germanic words from that period are part of the Portuguese lexicon, together with place names, surnames, and first names.
With theUmayyad conquest beginning in 711,Arabic became the administrative and common language in the conquered regions, but most of theremaining Christian population continued to speak a form ofIbero-Romance calledMozarabic which introduced a few hundred words from Arabic,Persian,Turkish, andBerber.[15] Like other Neo-Latin and European languages, Portuguese has adopted a significant number ofloanwords fromGreek,[16] mainly in technical and scientific terminology. These borrowings occurred via Latin, and later during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.
Portuguese evolved from the medieval language spoken in the northwestern medievalKingdom of Galicia, which theCounty of Portugal once formed part of. This variety has been retrospectively namedGalician–Portuguese, Old Portuguese, or Old Galician by linguists.[17]
Spoken area of Galician–Portuguese (also known as Old Portuguese or Medieval Galician) in the kingdoms of Galicia and León around the 10th century, before the separation ofGalician and Portuguese
It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th century that written Galician–Portuguese words and phrases are first recorded. This phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12th-century independence of theCounty of Portugal from theKingdom of León, which had by then assumed reign overGalicia.
In the first part of the Galician–Portuguese period (from the 12th to the 14th century), the language was increasingly used for documents and other written forms. For some time, it was the language of preference forlyric poetry in ChristianHispania, much asOccitan was the language of the poetry of thetroubadours in France. The Occitan digraphslh andnh, used in its classical orthography, were adopted by theorthography of Portuguese, presumably byGerald of Braga,[18] a monk fromMoissac, who became bishop ofBraga in Portugal in 1047, playing a major role in modernizing written Portuguese using classical Occitan norms.[19] Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under KingAfonso I of Portugal. In 1290, KingDenis of Portugal created the first Portuguese university in Lisbon (theEstudos Gerais, which later moved toCoimbra) and decreed for Portuguese, then simply called the "common language", to be known as the Portuguese language and used officially.
In the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with thePortuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia, and theAmericas. By the mid-16th century, Portuguese had become alingua franca in Asia and Africa, used not only for colonial administration and trade but also for communication between local officials and Europeans of all nationalities. The Portuguese expanded across South America, across Africa to the Pacific Ocean, taking their language with them.
Its spread was helped by mixed marriages between Portuguese and local people and by its association withRoman Catholicmissionary efforts, which led to the formation ofcreole languages such as that calledKristang in many parts of Asia (from the wordcristão, "Christian"). The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century. Some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities inIndia,Sri Lanka,Malaysia, andIndonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal.
The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of theCancioneiro Geral byGarcia de Resende, in 1516. The early times of Modern Portuguese, which spans the period from the 16th century to the present day, were characterized by an increase in the number of learned words borrowed fromClassical Latin andClassical Greek because of theRenaissance (learned words borrowed from Latin also came fromRenaissance Latin, the form of Latin during that time), which greatly enriched the lexicon. Most literate Portuguese speakers were also literate in Latin; and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing, and eventually speech, in Portuguese.[20]
Spanish authorMiguel de Cervantes once called Portuguese "the sweet and gracious language", while the Brazilian poetOlavo Bilac described it asa última flor do Lácio, inculta e bela ("the last flower ofLatium, naïve and beautiful").[21][22][23][24][25] Portuguese is also termed "the language of Camões", afterLuís Vaz de Camões, one of the greatest literary figures in the Portuguese language and author of the Portugueseepic poemThe Lusiads.[26][27][28]
In March 2006, theMuseum of the Portuguese Language, an interactive museum about the Portuguese language, was founded inSão Paulo, Brazil, the city with the greatest number of Portuguese language speakers in the world.[29] The museum is the first of its kind in the world.[29] In 2015 the museum was partially destroyed in a fire,[30] but restored and reopened in 2020.[31]
Portuguese is spoken by approximately 200 million people in South America, 30 million in Africa, 15 million in Europe, 5 million in North America and 0.33 million in Asia and Oceania. It is the native language of the vast majority of the people in Portugal,[33] Brazil[34] and São Tomé and Príncipe (95%).[35] Around 75% of the population of urban Angola speaks Portuguese natively,[36] with approximately 85% fluent; these rates are lower in the countryside.[37] Just over 50% (and rapidly increasing) of the population ofMozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, and 70% are fluent, according to the 2007 census.[38] Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all.[39] Almost 50% of the East Timorese are fluent in Portuguese. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, and the monolingual population speaks the Portuguese-basedCape Verdean Creole. Portuguese is mentioned in theConstitution of South Africa as one of the languages spoken by communities within the country for which thePan South African Language Board was charged with promoting and ensuring respect.[40]
There are also significant Portuguese-speaking immigrant communities in many territories includingAndorra (17.1%),[41]Bermuda,[42]Canada (400,275 people in the 2006 census),[43]France (1,625,000 people),[44]Japan (400,000 people),[45]Jersey,[46]Luxembourg (about 25% of the population as of 2021),Namibia (about 4–5% of the population, mainly refugees from Angola in the north of the country),[47]Paraguay (10.7% or 636,000 people),[48]Switzerland (550,000 in 2019, learning + mother tongue),[49]Venezuela (554,000),[50] and the United States (0.35% of the population or 1,228,126 speakers according to the 2007American Community Survey).[51]
In some parts of formerPortuguese India, namelyGoa[52] andDaman and Diu,[53] the language is still spoken by about 10,000 people. In 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa.[54] Approximately 2% of the people of Macau, China are fluent speakers of Portuguese. Additionally, the language is being very actively studied in the Chinese school system right up to the doctorate level. TheKristang people inMalaysia speakKristang, a Portuguese-Malay creole; however, the Portuguese language itself is not widely spoken in the country.
Equatorial Guinea made a formal application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010, a status given only to states with Portuguese as an official language.[56] Portuguese became its third official language (besidesSpanish andFrench)[57] in 2011, and in July 2014, the country was accepted as a member of the CPLP.[58]
According toThe World Factbook's country population estimates for 2018, the population of each of the ten jurisdictions is as follows (by descending order):
Equatorial Guinea adopted Portuguese as one of its official languages in 2007, being admitted to CPLP in 2014. The use of the Portuguese language in this country is limited.
The combined population of the entireLusophone area was estimated at 300 million in January 2022.[67][66][74] This number does not include the Lusophonediaspora, estimated at 10 million people (including 4.5 million Portuguese, 3 million Brazilians), although there are no official accurate figures for diasporic Portuguese speakers because a significant portion of these citizens are naturalized citizens born outside of Lusophone territory or are children of immigrants, and may have only a basic command of the language. Additionally, a large part of the diaspora is a part of the already-counted population of the Portuguese-speaking countries and territories, such as the high number of Brazilian andPALOP emigrant citizens in Portugal or the high number of Portuguese emigrant citizens in the PALOP and Brazil.
The Portuguese language therefore serves more than 250 million people daily, who have direct or indirect legal, juridical and social contact with it, varying from the only language used in any contact, to only education, contact with local or international administration, commerce and services or the simple sight of road signs, public information and advertising in Portuguese.
Portuguese is a mandatory subject in the school curriculum inUruguay.[75] Other countries where Portuguese is commonly taught in schools or where it has been introduced as an option includeVenezuela,[76]Zambia,[77] theRepublic of the Congo,[78]Senegal,[78]Namibia,[47]Eswatini,[78]South Africa,[78]Ivory Coast,[79] andMauritius.[80] In 2017, a project was launched to introduce Portuguese as a school subject inZimbabwe.[81][82] Also, according to Portugal's Minister of Foreign Affairs, the language will be part of the school curriculum of a total of 32 countries by 2020.[83] In such countries, Portuguese is spoken either as a native language by vast majorities due to their Portuguese colonial past or as alingua franca in bordering and multilingual regions, such as on the Brazilian borders of Uruguay and Paraguay and in regions of Angola and Namibia. In many other countries, Portuguese is spoken by majorities as a second language. There remain communities of thousands of Portuguese (orCreole) first language speakers inGoa,Sri Lanka,Kuala Lumpur,Daman and Diu, and other areas due toPortuguese colonization. InEast Timor, the number of Portuguese speakers is quickly increasing as Portuguese and Brazilian teachers are making great strides in teaching Portuguese in the schools all over the island.[84] Additionally, there are many large Portuguese-speaking immigrant communities all over the world.
Multilingual signage in Chinese, Portuguese and English at theHong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge port building inMacau. Portuguese is a co-official language in Macau.
According to estimates byUNESCO, Portuguese is the fastest-growingEuropean language afterEnglish and the language has, according to the newspaperThe Portugal News publishing data given from UNESCO, the highest potential for growth as an international language insouthern Africa andSouth America.[86] Portuguese is a globalized language spoken officially on five continents, and as a second language by millions worldwide.
Since 1991, when Brazil signed into the economic community ofMercosul with other South American nations, namelyArgentina,Uruguay andParaguay, Portuguese is either mandatory, or taught, in the schools of those South American countries.
Although early in the 21st century, afterMacau was returned toChina and immigration of Brazilians ofJapanese descent toJapan slowed down, the use of Portuguese was in decline inAsia, it is once again becoming a language of opportunity there, mostly because of increased diplomatic and financial ties with economically powerful Portuguese-speaking countries in the world.[87][88]
Portuguese, being a language spread on all continents, has official status in several international organizations. It is one of twenty official languages of theEuropean Union, an official language of NATO, theOrganization of American States (alongside Spanish, French and English), and one of eighteen official languages of theEuropean Space Agency.
Map showing the historical retreat and expansion of Portuguese (Galician–Portuguese) within the context of its linguistic neighbors between the year 1000 and 2000Map showing mostly contemporaryWest Iberian andOccitano-Romance languages, as well many of their mainland European dialects (areas colored green,gold or pink/purple represent languages deemedendangered byUNESCO, so this may be outdated in less than a few decades). It shows European Portuguese,Galician,Eonavian,Mirandese and theFala as not only closely related but asdialect continuum, though it excludes dialects spoken in insular Portugal (Azores and Madeira–Canaries is not shown either).[image reference needed]
Spanish andcalão (the Portuguese term forcaló, language of the IberianRomani).
Portuguese and other Romance languages (namelyFrench andItalian) share considerable similarities in both vocabulary and grammar. Portuguese speakers will usually need some formal study before attaining strong comprehension in those Romance languages, and vice versa. However, Portuguese and Galician are fully mutually intelligible, and Spanish is considerably intelligible for lusophones, owing to their genealogical proximity and shared genealogical history asWest Iberian (Ibero-Romance languages), historical contact between speakers and mutual influence, sharedareal features as well as modern lexical, structural, and grammatical similarity (89%) between them.[101][102][103][104][105]
Portuñol/Portunhol, a form ofcode-switching, has a more lively use and is more readily mentioned in popular culture in South America. Said code-switching is not to be confused with the Portuñol spoken on the borders of Brazil with Uruguay (dialeto do pampa) and Paraguay (dialeto dosbrasiguaios), and of Portugal with Spain (barranquenho), that are Portuguese dialects spoken natively by thousands of people, which have been heavily influenced by Spanish.[106]
Portuguese and Spanish are the only Ibero-Romance languages, and perhaps the only Romance languages with such thriving inter-language forms, in which visible and lively bilingual contact dialects and code-switching have formed, in which functional bilingual communication is achieved through attempting an approximation to the target foreign language (known as 'Portuñol') without a learned acquisition process, but nevertheless facilitates communication. There is an emerging literature focused on such phenomena (including informal attempts of standardization of the linguistic continua and their usage).[106]
The closest relative of Portuguese is Galician, which is spoken in the autonomous community and historical nationality of Galicia (Spain). The two were part of a common dialect continuum during the Middle Ages, known today asGalician–Portuguese, but they have diverged especially in pronunciation and vocabulary due to the political separation ofPortugal fromGalicia. There is, however, still a linguistic continuity consisting of the variant of Galician referred to asgalego-português baixo-limiao, which is spoken in several Galician and Portuguese villages within the transboundary biosphere reserve ofGerês-Xurés. It is "considered a rarity, a living vestige of the medieval language that ranged fromCantabria toMondego [...]".[107]As reported byUNESCO, due to the pressure of Spanish on the standard official version of Galician and centuries-oldCastilianization, the Galician language was on the verge of disappearing.[107]
According to the UNESCO philologist Tapani Salminen, the proximity to Portuguese protects Galician.[108] The core vocabulary and grammar of Galician are noticeably closer to Portuguese than to those of Spanish. Within the EU, Galician, while not being aEuropean Parliament official language, can be used and is in fact used by some European Parliament constituents due to its similarity with Portuguese.[109][110] Galician like Portuguese, uses the future subjunctive, the personal infinitive, and the synthetic pluperfect. Mutual intelligibility estimated at 85% is excellent between Galicians and Portuguese.[111] Despite political efforts in Spain to define them as separate languages, many linguists considerGalician and Portuguese to be co-dialects of the same language with regional variations.[112][110]
Another member of the Galician–Portuguese group, most commonly thought of as a Galician dialect, is spoken in theEonavian region in a western strip inAsturias and the westernmost parts of the provinces ofLeón andZamora, along the frontier with Galicia, between theEo andNavia rivers (or more exactly Eo and Frexulfe rivers). It is calledeonaviego orgallego-asturiano by its speakers.
The Fala language, known by its speakers asxalimés,mañegu,a fala de Xálima andchapurráu and in Portuguese asa fala de Xálima,a fala da Estremadura,o galego da Estremadura,valego orgalaico-estremenho, is another descendant of Galician–Portuguese, spoken by a small number of people in the Spanish towns ofValverde del Fresno (Valverdi du Fresnu),Eljas (As Ellas) andSan Martín de Trevejo (Sa Martín de Trevellu) in the autonomous community ofExtremadura, near the border with Portugal.
There are a number of other places in Spain in which the native language of the common people is a descendant of the Galician–Portuguese group, such asLa Alamedilla,Cedillo (Cedilho),Herrera de Alcántara (Ferreira d'Alcântara) andOlivenza (Olivença), but in these municipalities, what is spoken is actually Portuguese, not disputed as such in the mainstream.
The diversity of dialects of the Portuguese language is known since the time of medieval Portuguese-Galician language when it coexisted with the Lusitanian-Mozarabic dialect, spoken in the south of Portugal. The dialectal diversity becomes more evident in the work ofFernão d'Oliveira, in theGrammatica da Lingoagem Portuguesa, (1536), where he remarks that the people of Portuguese regions of Beira, Alentejo, Estremadura, and Entre Douro e Minho, all speak differently from each other. Also Contador d'Argote (1725) distinguishes three main varieties of dialects: the local dialects, the dialects of time, and of profession (work jargon). Of local dialects he highlights five main dialects: the dialect of Estremadura, of Entre-Douro e Minho, of Beira, of Algarve and of Trás-os-Montes. He also makes reference to the overseas dialects, the rustic dialects, the poetic dialect and that of prose.[citation needed]
In the kingdom of Portugal,Ladinho (orLingoagem Ladinha) was the name given to the pure Portuguese romance language, without any mixture of Aravia or Gerigonça Judenga.[113] While the termlíngua vulgar was used to name the language before D. Dinis decided to call it "Portuguese language",[114] the erudite version used and known as Galician–Portuguese (the language of the Portuguese court) and all other Portuguese dialects were spoken at the same time. In a historical perspective the Portuguese language was never just one dialect. Just like today there is a standard Portuguese (actually two) among the several dialects of Portuguese, in the past there was Galician–Portuguese as the "standard", coexisting with other dialects.
Beginning in the 16th century, the extensive contacts between Portuguese travelers and settlers, African and Asian slaves, and local populations led to the appearance of manypidgins with varying amounts of Portuguese influence.
As each of these pidgins became the mother tongue of succeeding generations, they evolved into fully fledgedcreole languages, which remained in use in many parts of Asia, Africa and South America until the 18th century.
Some Portuguese-based or Portuguese-influenced creoles are still spoken today, namelyCape Verdean Creole andPapiamento. Portuguese-based creoles are spoken by over three million people worldwide, especially people of partialPortuguese ancestry.
Portuguese can have as many as nine oral vowels, as many as two semivowels, and as many as 21 consonants; some varieties of the language have fewerphonemes. There are also fivenasal vowels, which some linguists regard asallophones of oral vowels.[citation needed] Galician–Portuguese developed in the region of the former Roman province ofGallaecia, from theVulgar Latin (common Latin) that had been introduced by Roman soldiers, colonists and magistrates during the time of theRoman Empire. Although the process may have been slower than in other regions, after a period of bilingualism, the centuries of contact with Vulgar Latin completely extinguished the native languages, and a variety of Latin with a few Gallaecian features evolved.[120][121]
Gallaecian andLusitanian influences were absorbed into the local dialect of Vulgar Latin; this can be detected in some Galician–Portuguese words, as well as in placenames ofCeltic andIberian origin.[122][123]
An early form of Galician–Portuguese was already spoken in theKingdom of the Suebi, and by the year 800 Galician–Portuguese had already become thevernacular of northwestern Iberia.[124] The first knownphonetic changes in Vulgar Latin, which began the evolution to Galician–Portuguese, took place during the rule of the Germanic groups, theSuebi (411–585) andVisigoths (585–711).[124] The Galician–Portuguese "inflected infinitive" (or "personal infinitive")[125][126] and thenasal vowels may have evolved under the influence of localCeltic (as inOld French).[12][127] The nasal vowels would thus be a phonologic characteristic of the Vulgar Latin spoken in RomanGallaecia, but they are not attested in writing until after the 6th and 7th centuries.[128]
LikeCatalan andGerman, Portuguese uses vowel quality to contrast stressed syllables with unstressed syllables. Unstressed isolated vowels tend to beraised and sometimes centralized.
Semivowels contrast with unstressed high vowels in verbal conjugation, as in(eu) rio/ˈʁi.u/ and(ele) riu/ˈʁiw/.[137] Phonologists discuss whether their nature is vowel or consonant.[138]
Bisol (2005:122) proposes that Portuguese possesses labio-velar stops/kʷ/ and/ɡʷ/ as additional phonemes rather than sequences of a velar stop and/w/.[136]
/s/ and/z/ are normallylamino-alveolar, as in English. However, a number of dialects in northern Portugal pronounce/s/ and/z/ asapico-alveolar sibilants (sounding somewhat like a soft[ʃ] or[ʒ]), as in the Romance languages of northern Iberia. Some very few northeastern Portugal dialects still maintain the medieval distinction between apical and laminalsibilants (writtens/ss andc/ç/z, respectively).
As a phoneme,/tʃ/ occurs only in loanwords, names, and interjections, with a dialectal tendency for speakers to substitute in/ʃ/ in most dialects outside of Brazil (as well as some conservative Brazilian dialects, to a variable extent.) However,[tʃ] is anallophone of/t/ before/i/ in a majority of Brazilian dialects. Similarly,[dʒ] is an allophone of/d/ in the same contexts.
In northern and central Portugal, the voiced stops (/b/,/d/, and/ɡ/) are usually lenited tofricatives[β],[ð], and[ɣ], respectively, except at the beginning of words or after nasal vowels.[130][131] At the end of a phrase, due tofinal-obstruent devoicing, they may even be devoiced to[ɸ],[θ], and[x] (for example,verde at the end of a sentence may be pronounced[veɹθ]).
In Brazil, many speakers further shift[ɫ] to[w] in closed syllables, especially outside the southern region.
Phonetically, Portuguese (andFrench) are quite different from the other major Romance languages. It has been suggested that this stems from the ancient link to Celtic languages such asWelsh orBreton,[144] with which it also shares a substantial number of cognates: there are 37 sounds in Portuguese, including vowels, consonants and diphthongs, most of which exist in today's Celtic languages.[145]
The spelling of Portuguese is largelyphonemic, but somephonemes can be spelled in more than one way. In ambiguous cases, the correct spelling is determined through a combination ofetymology withmorphology and tradition; so there is not a perfect one-to-one correspondence between sounds and letters or digraphs. Knowing the maininflectional paradigms of Portuguese and being acquainted with the orthography of other Western European languages can be helpful.
Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990
A notable aspect of the grammar of Portuguese is the verb. Morphologically, more verbal inflections from classical Latin have been preserved by Portuguese than by any other majorRomance language. Portuguese and Spanish share very similar grammar, vocabulary and sentence structure. Portuguese also has some grammatical innovations not found in other Romance languages (except Galician and Fala):
Thepresent perfect has an iterative sense unique to the Galician–Portuguese language group. It denotes an action or a series of actions that began in the past but expected to occur again in the future. For instance, the sentenceTenho tentado falar contigo would be translated to "I have been trying to talk to you", not "I have tried to talk to you." On the other hand, the correct translation of "Have you heard the latest news?" is not*Tens ouvido as últimas? butOuviste as últimas? since no repetition is implied.[146]
Portuguese makes use of the futuresubjunctive mood, which developed from medievalWest Iberian Romance. In modern Spanish and Galician, it has almost entirely fallen into disuse. The future subjunctive appears in dependent clauses that denote a condition that must be fulfilled in the future so that the independent clause will occur. English normally employs the present tense under the same circumstances:
Se eufor eleito presidente, mudarei a lei.
IfI am elected president, I will change the law.
Quandofores mais velho, vais entender.
Whenyou grow older, you will understand.
The personalinfinitive caninflect according to its subject inperson andnumber. It often shows who is expected to perform a certain action.É melhor voltares "It is better [for you] to go back",É melhor voltarmos "It is better [for us] to go back." Perhaps for that reason, infinitive clauses replace subjunctive clauses more often in Portuguese than in other Romance languages.
Linguistic map of Pre-Roman IberiaTheBissau-Guinean Presidential Palace, with itsPortuguese colonial architecture, is a building that has a library, a small theater and was formerly the palace of the colonial governor ofPortuguese-Guinea, seen from the PAIGC-building (formerly the seat of the local commercial associationAssociação Comercial, Industrial e Agrícola de Bissau), located at thePraça dos Heróis Nacionais square (formerlyPraça do Império square), in downtownBissau.
Most of the lexicon of Portuguese is derived, directly or through other Romance languages, from Latin. Nevertheless, because of its originalLusitanian and CelticGallaecian heritage, and the later participation of Portugal in theAge of Discovery, it has a relevant number of words from the ancientHispano-Celtic group[11] and adoptedloanwords from other languages around the world.
A number of Portuguese words can still be traced to thepre-Roman inhabitants of Portugal, which included theGallaeci,Lusitanians,Celtici andCynetes. Most of these words derived from the Hispano-CelticGallaecian language of northwestern Iberia, and are very often shared withGalician since both languages have the same origin in the medieval language of Galician–Portuguese. A few of these words existed in Latin as loanwords from otherCeltic sources, oftenGaulish. Altogether these are over 3,000 words, verbs, toponymic names of towns, rivers, surnames, tools, lexicon linked to rural life and natural world.[145]
In the 5th century, the Iberian Peninsula (the RomanHispania) was conquered by theGermanic,Suebi andVisigoths. As they adopted theRoman civilization and language, however, these people contributed with some 500Germanic words to the lexicon. Many of these words are related to:
warfare, such asespora 'spur',estaca ('stake'), andguerra ('war'), fromGothic*spaúra,*stakka, and*wirro respectively;
natural world, such assuino ('swine') from*sweina,gavião ('hawk') from*gabilans,vaga ('spot') from*vigan;
human emotions, such asorgulho ororgulhoso ('pride', 'proud') from Old Germanic*urguol, and
TheGermanic languages influence also exists intoponymic surnames andpatronymic surnames borne by Visigoth sovereigns and their descendants, and it dwells on placenames such asErmesinde,Esposende andResende wheresinde andsende are derived from the Germanicsinths ('military expedition') and in the case of Resende, the prefixre comes from Germanicreths ('council'). Other examples of Portuguese names, surnames and town names of Germanictoponymic origin include Henrique,Henriques, Vermoim, Mandim, Calquim, Baguim, Gemunde, Guetim, Sermonde and many more, are quite common mainly in the oldSuebi and laterVisigothic dominated regions, covering today's Northern half of Portugal andGalicia.
Between the 9th and early 13th centuries, Portuguese acquired some 400 to 600 words fromArabic by influence ofMoorish Iberia. They are often recognizable by the initialArabic articlea(l)-, and include common words such asaldeia ('village') from الضيعةaḍ-ḍayʿa,alface ('lettuce') from الخسةal-khassa,armazém ('warehouse') from المخزنal-makhzan, andazeite ('olive oil') from الزيتaz-zayt.
Starting in the 15th century, the Portuguese maritime explorations led to the introduction of many loanwords from Asian languages. For instance,catana ('cutlass') fromJapanesekatana,chá ('tea') fromChinesechá, andcanja[147] ('chicken-soup, piece of cake') fromMalay.
From the 16th to the 19th centuries, because of the role of Portugal as intermediary in theAtlantic slave trade, and the establishment of large Portuguese colonies in Angola, Mozambique, and Brazil, Portuguese acquired several words of African andAmerind origin, especially names for most of the animals and plants found in those territories. While those terms are mostly used in the former colonies, many became current in European Portuguese as well. FromKimbundu, for example, camekifumate >cafuné ('head caress') (Brazil),kusula >caçula ('youngest child') (Brazil),marimbondo ('tropical wasp') (Brazil), andkubungula >bungular ('to dance like a wizard') (Angola). From South America camebatata ('potato'), fromTaino;ananás andabacaxi, fromTupi–Guaraninaná andTupiibá cati, respectively (two species ofpineapple), andpipoca ('popcorn') from Tupi andtucano ('toucan') fromGuaranitucan.
Finally, it has received a steady influx of loanwords from other European languages, especially French andEnglish. These are by far the most important languages when referring to loanwords. There are many examples such as:colchete/crochê ('bracket'/'crochet'),paletó ('jacket'),batom ('lipstick'), andfilé/filete ('steak'/'slice'),rua ('street'), respectively, from Frenchcrochet,paletot,bâton,filet,rue; andbife ('steak'),futebol,revólver,stock/estoque,folclore, from English "beef", "football", "revolver", "stock", "folklore".
Examples from other European languages:macarrão ('pasta'),piloto ('pilot'),carroça ('carriage'), andbarraca ('barrack'), from Italianmaccherone,pilota,carrozza, andbaracca;melena ('hair lock'),fiambre ('wet-cured ham') (in Portugal, in contrast withpresunto 'dry-cured ham' from Latinprae-exsuctus 'dehydrated') or ('canned ham') (in Brazil, in contrast with non-canned, wet-cured (presunto cozido) and dry-cured (presunto cru)), orcastelhano ('Castilian'), from Spanishmelena ('mane'),fiambre andcastellano.
Modern StandardEuropean Portuguese (português padrão[148] orportuguês continental) is based on the Portuguese spoken in the area including and surrounding the cities ofCoimbra andLisbon, in central Portugal. Standard European Portuguese is also the preferred standard by the Portuguese-speaking African countries. As such, and despite the fact that its speakers are dispersed around the world, Portuguese has only two dialects used for learning: the European and the Brazilian. Some aspects and sounds found in many dialects of Brazil are exclusive to South America, and cannot be found in Europe. The same occur with the Santomean, Mozambican, Bissau-Guinean, Angolan and Cape Verdean dialects, being exclusive to Africa. SeePortuguese in Africa.
Audio samples of some dialects and accents of Portuguese are available below. There are some differences between the areas but these are the best approximations possible. IPA transcriptions refer to the names in local pronunciation.
Portugal's Portuguese dialectsMap of Angola 2024 - native majority Portuguese speakersPortuguese as a Native Language in Mozambique - Proportion of SpeakersThe mainpost office building ofMacau
Percentage of worldwide Portuguese speakers per country (c. 2023)[149]
Estremenho – Regions ofCoimbra andLisbon (this is a disputed denomination, as Coimbra and is not part of "Estremadura", and the Lisbon dialect has some peculiar features that are not only not shared with that of Coimbra, but also significantly distinct and recognizable to most native speakers from elsewhere in Portugal).
Audio samples of some dialects and accents of Portuguese are available below.[150] There are some differences between the areas but these are the best approximations possible. IPA transcriptions refer to the names in local pronunciation.
Caipira – Spoken in the states ofSão Paulo (most markedly on the countryside and rural areas); southernMinas Gerais, northernParaná and southeasternMato Grosso do Sul. Depending on the vision of what constitutescaipira,Triângulo Mineiro, border areas ofGoiás and the remaining parts of Mato Grosso do Sul are included, and the frontier ofcaipira in Minas Gerais is expanded further northerly, though not reaching metropolitanBelo Horizonte. It is often said thatcaipira appeared bydecreolization of thelíngua brasílica and the relatedlíngua geral paulista, then spoken in almost all of what is now São Paulo, a formerlingua franca in most of the contemporaryCentro-Sul of Brazil before the 18th century, brought by thebandeirantes, interior pioneers ofColonial Brazil, closely related to its northern counterpartNheengatu, and that is why the dialect shows many general differences from other variants of the language.[151] It has striking remarkable differences in comparison to other Brazilian dialects in phonology, prosody and grammar, oftenstigmatized as being strongly associated with asubstandard variant, now mostly rural.[152][153][154][155][156]
Cearense orCosta norte – is a dialect spoken more sharply in the states of Ceará and Piauí. The variant of Ceará includes fairly distinctive traits it shares with the one spoken in Piauí, though, such as distinctive regional phonology and vocabulary (for example, a debuccalization process stronger than that of Portuguese, a different system of the vowel harmony that spans Brazil fromfluminense andmineiro toamazofonia but is especially prevalent innordestino, a very coherent coda sibilant palatalization as those of Portugal and Rio de Janeiro but allowed in fewer environments than in other accents ofnordestino, a greater presence of dental stop palatalization to palato-alveolar in comparison to other accents ofnordestino, among others, as well as a great number of archaic Portuguese words).[157][158][159][160][161][162]
Baiano – Found inBahia and border regions withGoiás andTocantins. Similar tonordestino, it has a very characteristicsyllable-timed rhythm and the greatest tendency to pronounce unstressed vowels as open-mid[ɛ] and[ɔ].Variants andsociolects of Brazilian Portuguese
Fluminense – A broad dialect with many variants spoken in the states ofRio de Janeiro,Espírito Santo and neighboring eastern regions ofMinas Gerais.Fluminense formed in these previouslycaipira-speaking areas due to the gradual influence of European migrants, causing many people to distance their speech from their original dialect and incorporate new terms.[163]Fluminense is sometimes referred to ascarioca, howevercarioca is a more specific term referring to the accent of theGreater Rio de Janeiro area by speakers with afluminense dialect.
Gaúcho – inRio Grande do Sul, similar tosulista. There are many distinct accents in Rio Grande do Sul, mainly due to the heavy influx of European immigrants of diverse origins who have settled in colonies throughout the state, and to the proximity toSpanish-speaking nations. The wordgaúcho itself is a Spanishloanword into Portuguese, of obscureIndigenous Amerindian origins.
Mineiro –Minas Gerais (but not prevalent in theTriângulo Mineiro). As with thefluminense area, its associated region was formerly a sparsely populated land wherecaipira was spoken, butthe discovery of gold and gems made it the most prosperous Brazilian region, attracting Portuguese colonists, commoners from other parts of Brazil, and their African slaves. The south-southwestern,southeastern, and northern areas of the state each have fairly distinctive speech, actually approximating tocaipira,fluminense (popularly and often pejoratively calledcarioca do brejo, "marsh carioca"), andbaiano respectively.Belo Horizonte and the area surrounding it have a distinctive accent.
Nordestino[164] – more marked in theSertão (7), where, in the 19th and 20th centuries and especially in the area including and surrounding thesertão (the dry land afterAgreste) of Pernambuco and southern Ceará, it could sound less comprehensible to speakers of other Portuguese dialects than Galician orRioplatense Spanish, and nowadays less distinctive from other variants in the metropolitan citiesalong the coasts. It can be divided in two regional variants, one that includes the northernMaranhão and southern ofPiauí, and other that goes fromCeará toAlagoas.
Nortista oramazofonia – Most ofAmazon Basin states, i.e.Northern Brazil. Before the 20th century, most people from thenordestino area fleeing the droughts and their associated poverty settled here, so it has some similarities with the Portuguese dialect there spoken. The speech in and around the cities ofBelém andManaus has a more European flavor in phonology, prosody and grammar.
Paulistano – Variants spoken aroundGreater São Paulo in its maximum definition and more easterly areas of São Paulo state, as well as perhaps "educated speech" from anywhere inthe state of São Paulo (where it coexists withcaipira).Caipira is the hinterland sociolect of much of theCentral-Southern half of Brazil, nowadays conservative only in the rural areas and associated with them, that has a historicallylow prestige in cities as Rio de Janeiro, Curitiba, Belo Horizonte, and until some years ago, in São Paulo itself.Sociolinguistics, or what by times is described as "linguistic prejudice", often correlated withclassism,[165][166][167] is a polemic topic in the entirety of the country since the times ofAdoniran Barbosa. Also, the "Paulistano" accent was heavily influenced by the presence of immigrants in the city of São Paulo, especially the Italians.
Sertanejo –Center-Western states, and also much ofTocantins andRondônia. It is closer tomineiro,caipira,nordestino ornortista depending on the location.
Sulista – The variants spoken in the areas between the northern regions ofRio Grande do Sul and southern regions of São Paulo state, encompassing most ofsouthern Brazil. The city ofCuritiba does have a fairly distinct accent as well, and a relative majority of speakers around and inFlorianópolis also speak this variant (many speakflorianopolitano ormanezinho da ilha instead, related to the European Portuguese dialects spoken inAzores andMadeira). Speech of northern Paraná is closer to that of inland São Paulo.
Florianopolitano – Variants heavily influenced by European Portuguese spoken inFlorianópolis city (due to a heavy immigration movement from Portugal, mainly itsinsular regions) and much of its metropolitan area,Grande Florianópolis, said to be a continuum between those whose speech most resemblesulista dialects and those whose speech most resemblefluminense and European ones, calledmanezinho da ilha.
Carioca – Not a dialect, butsociolects of thefluminense variant spoken in an area roughly corresponding toGreater Rio de Janeiro. It appeared after locals came in contact with the Portuguese aristocracy amidst thePortuguese royal family fled in the early 19th century. There is actually a continuum between Vernacular countryside accents and thecarioca sociolect, and the educated speech (in Portuguesenorma culta, which most closely resembles other Brazilian Portuguese standards but with marked recent Portuguese influences, the nearest ones among the country's dialects alongflorianopolitano), so that not all people native to the state of Rio de Janeiro speak the said sociolect, but mostcarioca speakers will use the standard variant not influenced by it that is rather uniform around Brazil depending on context (emphasis or formality, for example).
Brasiliense – used inBrasília and its metropolitan area.[168] It is not considered a dialect, but more of a regional variant – often deemed to be closer tofluminense than the dialect commonly spoken in most of Goiás,sertanejo.
Arco do desflorestamento orserra amazônica – Known in its region as the "accent of the migrants", it has similarities withcaipira,sertanejo and oftensulista that make it differing fromamazofonia (in the opposite group of Brazilian dialects, in which it is placed alongnordestino,baiano,mineiro andfluminense). It is the most recent dialect, which appeared by the settlement of families from various other Brazilian regions attracted by the cheap land offer in recentlydeforested areas.[169]
Recifense – used inRecife and its metropolitan area.
Amazônico Ocidental — used in the extremeWestern Amazon region, namely: SouthwesternAmazonas, including the region ofBoca do Acre and throughout the State ofAcre, which share important historical-cultural aspects, such as, once belonging toPeru-Bolivian Confederation, the FirstAmazon rubber cycle andAcre Time Zone, sociologically, is considered a homogenous region. Differing from the traditional Northern dialect, in which the phonetic realization of the "s" always has the sound ofch, in the Brazilian Western Amazon region, there will only be the sound ofch whose words the "s" are in the middle of the word, as examples;costa,festa ordestino, as well as the one observed indialect of the north coast. Within theBrazilian countryside, it is one of the few areas where the phonetic realization of "r" resembles those observed in the Carioca dialect (open), other examples where this phenomenon is observed: Brasília dialect andBelo Horizonte dialect.[170]
Linguistic map of the state ofMinas Gerais, according to the scientific studyEsboço de um Atlas Linguístico de Minas Gerais (EALMG), "Draft of a Linguistic Atlas for Minas Gerais".Federal University of Juiz de Fora, 1977. The blue zone speaksmineiro, the green zonecaipira, the yellow zonegeraizeiro.
Você, a pronoun meaning "you", is used for educated, formal, and colloquial respectful speech in most Portuguese-speaking regions. In a few Brazilian states such asRio Grande do Sul, Pará, among others,você is virtually absent from the spoken language. Riograndense and European Portuguese normally distinguishes formal from informal speech by verbal conjugation. Informal speech employstu followed by second person verbs, formal language retains the formalvocê, followed by the third person conjugation.
Conjugation of verbs intu has three different forms in Brazil (verb "to see":tu viste?, in the traditional second person;tu viu?, in the third person; andtu visse?, in the innovative second person), the conjugation used in the Brazilian states of Pará, Santa Catarina and Maranhão being generally traditional second person, the kind that is used in other Portuguese-speaking countries and learned in Brazilian schools.
The predominance of Southeastern-based media products has establishedvocê as the pronoun of choice for the second person singular in both writing and multimedia communications. However, in the city of Rio de Janeiro, the country's main cultural center, the usage oftu has been expanding ever since the end of the 20th century,[171] being most frequent among youngsters, and a number of studies have also shown an increase in its use in a number of other Brazilian dialects.[172][173]
Differences between dialects are mostly ofaccent andvocabulary, but between the Brazilian dialects and other dialects, especially in their most colloquial forms, there can also be some grammatical differences. ThePortuguese-based creoles spoken in various parts of Africa, Asia, and the Americas are independent languages.
Portuguese, likeCatalan, preserves the stressed vowels ofVulgar Latin which became diphthongs in most other Romance languages; cf. Port., Cat., Sard.pedra; Fr.pierre, Sp.piedra, It.pietra, Ro.piatră, from Lat.petra ("stone"); or Port.fogo, Cat.foc, Sard.fogu; Sp.fuego, It.fuoco, Fr.feu, Ro.foc, from Lat.focus ("fire"). Another characteristic of early Portuguese was the loss ofintervocalicl andn, sometimes followed by the merger of the two surrounding vowels, or by the insertion of anepenthetic vowel between them: cf. Lat.salire ("to exit"),tenere ("to have"),catena ("jail"), Port.sair,ter,cadeia.
When theelided consonant wasn, it oftennasalized the preceding vowel: cf. Lat.manum ("hand"),ranam ("frog"),bonum ("good"), Old Portuguesemão,rãa,bõo (Portuguese:mão,rã,bom). This process was the source of most of the language's distinctive nasal diphthongs. In particular, the Latin endings-anem,-anum and-onem became-ão in most cases, cf. Lat.canis ("dog"),germanus ("brother"),ratio ("reason") with Modern Port.cão,irmão,razão, and their plurals-anes,-anos,-ones normally became-ães,-ãos,-ões, cf.cães,irmãos,razões. This also occurs in the minority SwissRomansh language in many equivalent words such asmaun ("hand"),bun ("good"), orchaun ("dog").[174]
The Portuguese language is the onlyRomance language that preserves the clitic casemesoclisis: cf.dar-te-ei (I'll give thee),amar-te-ei (I'll love you),contactá-los-ei (I'll contact them). LikeGalician, it also retains the Latin syntheticpluperfect tense:eu estivera (I had been),eu vivera (I had lived),vós vivêreis (you had lived).[175]Romanian also has this tense, but uses the -s- form.
Todos os seres humanos nascem livres e iguais em dignidade e em direitos. Dotados de razão e de consciência, devem agir uns para com os outros em espírito de fraternidade.
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:[177]
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
^Benozzo, F. (2018): "Uma paisagem atlântica pré-histórica. Etnogénese e etno-filologia paleo-mesolítica das tradições galega e portuguesa", in proceedings of Jornadas das Letras Galego-Portugesas 2015–2017. Università de Bologna, DTS and Academia Galega da Língua Portuguesa. pp. 159–170
^ab"In the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, and more specifically between the west and north Atlantic coasts and an imaginary line running north-south and linking Oviedo and Merida, there is a corpus of Latin inscriptions with particular characteristics of its own. This corpus contains some linguistic features that are clearly Celtic and others that in our opinion are not Celtic. The former we shall group, for the moment, under the label northwestern Hispano-Celtic. The latter are the same features found in well-documented contemporary inscriptions in the region occupied by the Lusitanians, and therefore belonging to the variety known as LUSITANIAN, or more broadly as GALLO-LUSITANIAN. As we have already said, we do not consider this variety to belong to the Celtic language family." Jordán Colera 2007: p.750
^Domingos Maria da Silva, Os Búrios, Terras de Bouro, Câmara Municipal de Terras de Bouro, 2006. (in Portuguese)
^Corriente, F. (2008).Dictionary of Arabic and allied loanwords : Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Galician and kindred dialects. Leiden: Brill.ISBN978-90-04-16858-9.OCLC234431540.
^Funari, Pedro Paulo Abreu (2002).Grécia e Roma (in Portuguese) (2.ª ed.). São Paulo: Contexto. p. 80.ISBN9788572441605.Dos romanos herdamos, também, nossa própria língua, pois o português nada mais é do que um latim modificado. A maioria das palavras do português deriva do latim, sendo, em alguns casos, exatamente as mesmas. Vamos a um exemplo, como é o caso de família, "família". Noutros casos, são palavras quase iguais, como filius, "filho" ou adolescentes, "adolescentes". O português deriva do latim, porque os romanos dominaram a Península Ibérica e, por muitos séculos, o latim foi ali falado. Por isso, o português é conhecido como "a última flor do Lácio", ou seja, a última língua derivada do latim, a língua do Lácio, região onde estava Roma.
^Niskier, Arnaldo (16 August 2004)."Identidade cultural: língua e soberania".Folha de S.Paulo (in Portuguese).Archived from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved13 October 2022.Por que gastar o seu latim nestes tempos descartáveis que vivemos? Uma resposta óbvia — pelo menos para aqueles que lidam diretamente com a língua portuguesa e lutam pela sua preservação — é que ela é conhecida como "a última flor do Lácio", ou seja, foi a última ramificação do latim.
^Almeida, Haline Janaína Franco; Oliveira, Luiz Roberto Peel Furtado de (2020)."Cartografando os neologismos na quarentena: ampliando o vocabulário da língua portuguesa".Revista Philologus (in Portuguese).26 (78). Círculo Fluminense de Estudos Filológicos e Linguísticos:1132–1142.Archived from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved13 October 2022.Conhecida como "A última flor do Lácio", a língua portuguesa vem sofrendo transformações no decorrer dos séculos, a partir do latim vulgar, sendo caracterizada como dinâmica e heterogênea.
^"Comentando sobre origens e descendências".Gazeta Brazilian News (in Portuguese). 17 November 2016.Archived from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved13 October 2022.Com a Língua Portuguesa não foi diferente. Você sabia que o português é conhecido como a última flor do Lácio?
^"Língua Portuguesa".Rua da Poesia (in Portuguese). Archived fromthe original on 7 October 2008. Retrieved24 August 2006.Última flor do Lácio, inculta e bela,/ És, a um tempo, esplendor e sepultura:/ Ouro nativo, que na ganga impura/ A bruta mina entre os cascalhos vela…
^Hagemeijer, Tjerk (2009)."As Línguas de S. Tomé e Príncipe"(PDF).Revista de Crioulos de Base Lexical Portuguesa e Espanhola.1 (1):1–27.Archived(PDF) from the original on 24 December 2020. Retrieved17 November 2019.
^Lingue della Svizzera.Pratiche linguistiche in Svizzera: Primi risultati dell'Indagine sulla lingua, la religione e la cultura 2019 (Report) (in Italian). 2019.Archived from the original on 26 March 2022. Retrieved18 March 2022.
^Carvalho, Ana Maria (2010). "Portuguese in the USA". In Potowski, Kim (ed.).Language Diversity in the USA. Cambridge University Press. p. 346.ISBN978-0-521-74533-8.
^ab"Estados-membros" [Member States].Community of Portuguese Language Countries (in Portuguese). 7 February 2017.Archived from the original on 7 February 2017. Retrieved7 February 2017.
^da Silva, Emmanuel (2015). "Socioliguistic Tensions in Toronoto". In Moita-Lopes, Luiz Paulo (ed.).Global Portuguese: Linguistic Ideologies in Late Modernity. New York: Routledge. p. 129.ISBN978-1-31763-304-4.
^"The World's 10 most influential languages", George Weber, 1997,Language Today, "...includes besides many other languages, Bengali, English, French, German, Hindi/Urdu, Italian, Marathi, Panjabi, Persian, Brazilian (Portuguese), Russian, the Scandinavian languages, and Spanish." "Portuguese today means above all Brazilian."
^abLipski, John M (2006). Face, Timothy L; Klee, Carol A (eds.).Too close for comfort? the genesis of 'portuñol/portunhol'(PDF).Selected Proceedings of the 8th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium. pp. 1–22.Archived(PDF) from the original on 16 December 2008. Retrieved21 June 2015.
^Osório, Jorge A. (1993)."D. Dinis: o Rei a Língua e o Reino" [D. Dinis: the King the Language and the Kingdom](PDF).Máthesis (in Portuguese) (2):17–36.hdl:10216/20003.Archived(PDF) from the original on 16 August 2016. Retrieved12 June 2015.
^Dicionário Português–Chinês : Pu Han ci dian: Portuguese–Chinese dictionary, by Michele Ruggieri, Matteo Ricci; edited by John W. Witek. Published 2001, Biblioteca Nacional.ISBN972-565-298-3.Partial previewArchived 15 December 2022 at theWayback Machine available onGoogle Books
^Piel, Joseph-Maria (1989). "Origens e estruturação histórica do léxico português" [Origins and historical structure of the Portuguese lexicon].Estudos de Linguística Histórica Galego-Portuguesa [Studies in Galician–Portuguese Historical Linguistics](PDF) (in Portuguese). Lisboa: IN-CM. pp. 9–16. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 27 February 2008.
^Cabeza Quiles, Fernando (2014).A toponimia celta de Galicia. Noia: Toxosoutos.ISBN978-84-942224-4-3.
^ab"As origens do romance galego-português" [The origins of the Galician–Portuguese romance language].História da Língua Portuguesa em linha (in Portuguese). Instituto Camões.Archived from the original on 31 March 2020. Retrieved24 March 2021.
^Raposo, Eduardo (1989). "Prepositional Infinitival Constructions in European Portuguese". In Osvaldo A. Jaeggli; Kenneth J. Safir (eds.).The Null Subject Parameter. Studies in Natural Language and Linguistic Theory. Vol. 15. pp. 277–305.doi:10.1007/978-94-009-2540-3_10.ISBN978-1-55608-087-6.
^"Fonética histórica" [Historical phonetics].História da Língua Portuguesa em linha (in Portuguese). Instituto Camões. Archived fromthe original on 22 September 2007.
^Carvalho, Joana (2012)."Sobre os Ditongos do Português Europeu"(PDF).ELingUp (in Portuguese).4 (1): 20. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 29 November 2015.A conclusão será que nos encontramos em presença de dois segmentos fonológicos /kʷ/ e /ɡʷ/, respetivamente, com uma articulação vocálica. Bisol (2005:122), tal como Freitas (1997), afirma que não estamos em presença de um ataque ramificado. Neste caso, a glide, juntamente com a vogal que a sucede, forma um ditongo no nível pós-lexical. Esta conclusão implica um aumento do número de segmentos no inventário segmental fonológico do português.
^abBisol (2005:122):"A proposta é que a sequencia consoante velar + glide posterior seja indicada no léxico como uma unidade monofonemática /kʷ/ e /ɡʷ/. O glide que, nete caso, situa-se no ataque não-ramificado, forma com a vogal seguinte um ditongo crescente em nível pós lexical. Ditongos crescentes somente se formam neste nível. Em resumo, a consoante velar e o glide posterior, quando seguidos de a/o, formam uma só unidade fonológica, ou seja, um segmento consonantal com articulação secundária vocálica, em outros termos, um segmento complexo."
^Squartini, Mario (1998).Verbal Periphrases in Romance: Aspect, Actionality, and Grammaticalization. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.ISBN978-3-11-016160-1.OCLC39007172.
^"Canja".Dicionário Priberam.Archived from the original on 24 September 2018. Retrieved23 September 2018.
^Callou, Dinah; Leite, Yonne (2001).Iniciação à Fonética e à Fonologia [Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology] (in Portuguese). Jorge Zahar Editora. p. 24.
^Lee, Seung Hwa (2006)."Sobre as vogais pré-tônicas no Português Brasileiro" [About pre-tonic vowels in Brazilian Portuguese](PDF).Estudos Lingüísticos (in Portuguese).XXXV:166–175.Archived(PDF) from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved10 August 2017.
^"Learn about Portuguese language".Sibila - Revista de Poesia e Crítica Literária. Sibila. 25 April 2009.Archived from the original on 22 December 2012. Retrieved27 November 2012.
^Note: the speaker of this sound file is from Rio de Janeiro, and he is talking about his experience withnordestino andnortista accents.
^"Sotaque branco" [White accent] (in Portuguese). Meia Maratona Internacional CAIXA de Brasília. Archived fromthe original on 17 May 2016. Retrieved25 September 2012.
^"O Que É? Amazônia" [What is? Amazon].Amarnatureza.org.br (in Portuguese). Associação de Defesa do Meio Ambiente Araucária (AMAR). 1 September 2009. Archived fromthe original on 22 December 2012. Retrieved25 September 2012.
^pdf - Seringueiros da Amazônia, University of São Paulo (USP), Faculty of Philosophy, Letters and Human Sciences, Department of Geography
Carta de dotação e fundação da Igreja de S. Miguel de Lardosa, a.D. 882 (o mais antigo documento latino-português original conhecido)[1]Archived 10 September 2019 at theWayback Machine
Literature
Poesia e Prosa Medievais, by Maria Ema Tarracha Ferreira, Ulisseia 1998, 3rd ed.,ISBN978-972-568-124-4.
Cook, Manuela. Portuguese Pronouns and Other Forms of Address, from the Past into the Future – Structural, Semantic and Pragmatic Reflections, Ellipsis, vol. 11, APSA, www.portuguese-apsa.com/ellipsis, 2013
Cook, Manuela (1997). "Uma Teoria de Interpretação das Formas de Tratamento na Língua Portuguesa".Hispania.80 (3):451–464.doi:10.2307/345821.JSTOR345821.
Cook, Manuela. On the Portuguese Forms of Address: FromVossa Mercê toVocê, Portuguese Studies Review 3.2, Durham: University of New Hampshire, 1995
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