The western part of the Iberian Peninsula has been continuously inhabited sinceprehistoric times, with the earliest signs ofsettlement dating to 5500 BC.[15]Celtic andIberian peoples arrived in the first millennium BC. The region came underRoman control in the second century BC, followed by a succession ofGermanic peoples and theAlans from the fifth to eighth centuries AD.Muslims conquered the mainland of present-day Portugal in the eighth century, and Islamic rule was expelled by the ChristianReconquista culminating with the final capture ofFaro, between 1238 and 1249 AD.[16] Modern Portugal began taking shape during this period, initially as acounty of the ChristianKingdom of León in 868 and subsequently as a sovereignKingdom with theTreaty of Zamora in 1143.[17]
As one of the earliest participants in theAge of Discovery, the Kingdom of Portugal settled Madeira and the Azores, and established itself as a major economic and political power, largely through amaritime empire that extended mostly along theSouth Atlantic andIndian Ocean coasts.[18] The Portuguesewere among the first Europeans to explore and discover new territories and sea routes in South America, sub-Saharan Africa, and southern and eastern Asia, establishing a global commercial network of settlements, colonies, and trading posts.[19] Lucrative trade in spices, slaves, and various other commodities enriched the kingdom and fueled acultural renaissance, but could not stem growing internal political challenges. Adynastic crisis in the early 1580s resulted in theIberian Union (1580–1640), which unified Portugal under Spanish rule,[20] marking its gradual decline as a global power.[21] Portuguese sovereignty was regained in 1688 following acostly and protracted war, while the1755 Lisbon earthquake destroyed the city and further damaged the empire's economy.[22]
The wordPortugal derives from the combinedRoman-Celtic place namePortus Cale[27][28] (present-day'sconurbation ofPorto andVila Nova de Gaia). Porto stems from the Latin forport,portus;Cale's meaning and origin is unclear. The mainstream explanation is anethnonym derived from the Callaeci, also known as theGallaeci peoples, who occupied the north-west of theIberian Peninsula.[29] One theory proposesCale is a derivation of the Celtic word for 'port'.[30] Another is thatCala was a Celtic goddess. Some French scholars believe it may have come fromPortus Gallus,[31] the port of the Gauls.
Around 200 BC, theRomans took Iberia from theCarthaginians during theSecond Punic War. In the process they conquered Cale, renaming itPortus Cale ('Port of Cale') and incorporating it into the province ofGallaecia. During theMiddle Ages, the region around Portus Cale became known by theSuebi andVisigoths asPortucale. The namePortucale changed intoPortugale during the 7th and 8th centuries, and by the 9th century, it was used to refer to the region between the rivers Douro andMinho. By the 11th and 12th centuries,Portugale,Portugallia,Portvgallo orPortvgalliae was already referred to asPortugal.
The region has been inhabited by humans since circa 400,000 years ago, whenHomo heidelbergensis entered the area. The oldest human fossil found in Portugal is the 400,000-year-oldAroeira 3H. Heidelbergensis skull discovered in theCave of Aroeira in 2014.[32] LaterNeanderthals roamed the northern Iberian peninsula and a tooth has been found at Nova da Columbeira cave inEstremadura.[33]Homo sapiens sapiens arrived in Portugal around 35,000 years ago and spread rapidly.[34] Pre-Celtic tribes inhabited Portugal. TheCynetes developed a written language, leavingstelae, which are mainly found in the south.
Early in the first millennium BC, several waves ofCelts arrived in Portugal from Central Europe and intermarried with the local populations to form several different ethnic groups. The Celtic presence is patent in archaeological and linguistic evidence. They dominated most of northern and central Portugal, while the south maintained its older character (believed non-Indo-European, likely related toBasque) until the Roman conquest.[35] In southern Portugal, some small, semi-permanent commercial coastal outposts were also founded byPhoenicians andCarthaginians.
Roman Portugal
Roman Temple of Évora, one of the best preserved landmarks of Roman presence in Portugal
Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC. The Carthaginians, Rome's opponent in thePunic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies. DuringJulius Caesar's rule, almost the entire peninsula was annexed to Rome. The conquest took two hundred years and many died, including those sentenced to work in slave mines or sold as slaves to other parts of the empire. Roman occupation suffered a setback in 155 BC, when arebellion began in the north. TheLusitanians and other native tribes, under the leadership ofViriathus,[36][37] wrested control of all of western Iberia. Rome sent legions to quell the rebellion but were unsuccessful. Roman leaders bribed Viriathus's allies to kill him in 139 BC; he was replaced byTautalus.
In 409, with the decline of theRoman Empire, theIberian Peninsula was occupied byGermanic tribes.[39] In 411, with a federation contract withEmperor Honorius, many of these people settled inHispania. An important group was made up of theSuebi,Buri,[40]Vandals inGallaecia, who founded aSuebi Kingdom with its capital inBraga. They came to dominate central Portugal, includingAeminium (Coimbra) all the way to theTagus, while theVisigoths occupied the south.[41]TheSuebi and the Visigoths were the Germanic tribes who had the most lasting presence in the territories corresponding to modern Portugal. As elsewhere in Western Europe, there was a sharp decline in urban life during theDark Ages.[42]
Roman institutions disappeared in the wake of theGermanic invasions with the exception ofecclesiastical organisations, which were fostered by the Suebi in the fifth century and adopted by the Visigoths afterwards. Although the Suebi and Visigoths were initially followers ofArianism andPriscillianism, they adoptedCatholicism from the local inhabitants. St.Martin of Braga was a particularly influential evangelist.[41]
In 429, the Visigoths moved south to expel theAlans andVandals and founded a kingdom with its capital inToledo. From 470, conflict between the Suebi and Visigoths increased. In 585, the Visigothic KingLiuvigild conquered Braga and annexed Gallaecia; theIberian Peninsula was unified under aVisigothic Kingdom.[41] A new class emerged, unknown in Roman times: anobility, which played a key social and political role during theMiddle Ages. It was under the Visigoths that the Church began to play an important part within the state. As the Visigoths did not learn Latin from the local people, they had to rely on bishops to continue the Roman system of governance. The laws were made by councils of bishops, and theclergy emerged as a high-ranking class.
Islamic period
Today's continental Portugal, along with most of modern Spain, was invaded from the South and became part ofal-Andalus between 726 and 1249, following theUmayyad Caliphate conquest of theIberian Peninsula. This rule lasted decades in the North, up to five centuries in the South.[43]
Ruins ofAljezur castle, in theAlgarve built by theMoors in the 10th century.
After defeating theVisigoths in a few months, the Umayyad Caliphate started expanding rapidly in the peninsula. Beginning in 726, the land that is now Portugal became part of the vast Umayyad Caliphate's empire ofDamascus, until its collapse in 750. That year the west of the empire gained its independence underAbd-ar-Rahman I with the establishment of theEmirate of Córdoba. The Emirate became theCaliphate of Córdoba in 929, until its dissolution in 1031, into 23 small kingdoms, calledTaifa kingdoms.[43]
The governors of the taifas proclaimed themselvesEmir of their provinces and established diplomatic relations with the Christian kingdoms of the north. Most of present-day Portugal fell into the hands of theTaifa of Badajoz of theAftasid Dynasty, and in 1022 theTaifa of Seville of theAbbadids poets. The Taifa period ended with the conquest of theAlmoravids in 1086, then by theAlmohads in 1147.[44]Al-Andaluz was divided into districts calledKura.Gharb Al-Andalus at its largest consisted of ten kuras,[45] each with a distinct capital and governor. The main cities were in the southern half of the country:Beja,Silves,Alcácer do Sal,Santarém andLisbon. The Muslim population consisted mainly of native Iberian converts to Islam andBerbers.[46] The Arabs (mainly noblemen fromSyria) although a minority, constituted the elite. The Berbers who joined them, were nomads from theRif Mountains of North Africa.[43]
Invasions from the North also occurred in this period, withViking incursions raiding the coast between the 9th and 11th centuries, including Lisbon.[47][48] This resulted in the establishment of smallNorse settlements in the coastline betweenDouro andMinho.[49]
TheReconquista was a period when Christians reconquered the Iberian Peninsula fromMoorish domination. An Asturian Visigothic noble namedPelagius of Asturias was elected leader in 718[50] by many of the oustedVisigoth nobles. Pelagius called for the remnants of the Christian Visigothic armies to rebel against the Moors and regroup in the unconquered northern Asturian highlands, known today as theCantabrian Mountains, in north-west Spain.[51] After defeating the Moors in theBattle of Covadonga in 722, Pelagius was proclaimed king, thus founding the ChristianKingdom of Asturias and starting the war of Christian reconquest.[51]
At the end of the 9th century, the region of Portugal between the rivers Minho and Douro was reconquered from the Moors by nobleman and knightVímara Peres on the orders of KingAlfonso III of Asturias.[52] Finding many towns deserted, he decided to repopulate and rebuild them.[53]
Vímara Peres elevated the region to the status ofCounty, naming it theCounty of Portugal after its major port city –Portus Cale or modernPorto. One of the first cities he founded is Vimaranes, known today asGuimarães – "birthplace of the Portuguese nation" or the "cradle city".[53]
After annexing the County of Portugal into one of the counties that made up theKingdom of Asturias, KingAlfonso III of Asturias knighted Vímara Peres, in 868, as the First Count of Portus Cale (Portugal). The region became known asPortucale,Portugale, and simultaneouslyPortugália.[53] With the forced abdication of Alfonso III in 910, the Kingdom of Asturias split into three separate kingdoms; they were reunited in 924 under the crown ofLeón.
At theBattle of São Mamede, in the outskirts ofGuimarães, in 1128,Afonso Henriques, Count of Portugal, defeated his motherCountess Teresa and her loverFernão Peres de Trava, establishing himself as sole leader of thecounty. Afonso continued his father Henry of Burgundy's Reconquista wars. His campaigns were successful and in 1139, he obtained a victory in theBattle of Ourique, so was proclaimedKing of Portugal by his soldiers. This is traditionally taken as the occasion when the County of Portugal became the independentKingdom of Portugal and, in 1129, the capital city was transferred from Guimarães to Coimbra. Afonso was recognized as the first king of Portugal in 1143 by KingAlfonso VII of León, and in 1179 byPope Alexander III as Afonso I of Portugal.Afonso Henriques and his successors, aided by militarymonastic orders, continued pushing southwards against the Moors. In 1249, the Reconquista ended with the capture of theAlgarve and expulsion of the last Moorish settlements. With minor readjustments, Portugal's territorial borders have remained the same, making it one of the oldest established nations in Europe.
After a conflict with thekingdom of Castile,Denis of Portugal signed theTreaty of Alcañices in 1297 with Ferdinand IV of Castile. This treaty established the border between the kingdoms of Portugal and Leon. The reigns of Denis,Afonso IV, andPeter I mostly saw peace with the other kingdoms of Iberia.
In 1348-49 Portugal, as with the rest of Europe, was devastated by theBlack Death.[54] In 1373, Portugal made analliance with England, the oldest standing alliance in the world.
Between 1519 and 1522Ferdinand Magellan organised a Spanish expedition to theEast Indies which resulted in the firstcircumnavigation of the globe. TheTreaty of Zaragoza, signed in 1529 between Portugal and Spain, divided the Pacific Ocean between Spain and Portugal.[65]
Portugal voluntarily entered a dynastic union (1580–1640) because the last two kings of theHouse of Aviz (Sebastian, King of Portugal, followed by his grand-uncleHenry, King of Portugal) died without heirs, resulting in thePortuguese succession crisis of 1580.Philip II of Spain claimed the throne, under the pretext that his mother was a Portuguese princess,Isabella of Portugal, the second child and first daughter of KingManuel I of Portugal. Philip II of Spain was accepted as Philip I of Portugal. Yet, Portugal did not lose its formal independence. Instead, aunion of kingdoms was formed. But the joining of the two crowns deprived Portugal of an independent foreign policy, and led to its involvement in theEighty Years' War between Spain and the Netherlands.
War led to a deterioration of relations withPortugal's oldest ally, England, and the loss ofHormuz, a strategic trading post located betweenIran andOman. From 1595 to 1663 theDutch Portuguese War primarily involved Dutch companies invading Portuguesecolonies and commercial interests in Brazil, Africa, India and the Far East, resulting in the loss of Portugal's Indian sea trade monopoly.
In 1640John IV of Portugal spearheaded an uprising backed by disgruntled nobles and was proclaimed king. ThePortuguese Restoration War ended the 60-year period of the Iberian Union under theHouse of Habsburg. This was the beginning of theHouse of Braganza, which reigned until 1910.John V saw a reign characterized by the influx of gold into the royal treasury, supplied largely by theroyal fifth (tax on precious metals) from thePortuguese colonies ofBrazil andMaranhão. Most estimates place the number of Portuguese migrants toColonial Brazil during the gold rush of the 18th century at 600,000.[66] This represented one of the largest movements of European populations to their colonies, during colonial times.
In 1738Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, later ennobled as 1stMarquis of Pombal, began a career as the Portuguese Ambassador in London, later in Vienna. KingJoseph I was crowned in 1750 and made him hisMinister of Foreign Affairs. As the King's confidence in Carvalho e Melo increased, he entrusted him with more control of the state. By 1755, Carvalho e Melo was made prime minister. Impressed by British economic success witnessed as Ambassador, he successfully implemented similareconomic policies in Portugal.
In 1761, during the reign of King José I, he banned the import of black slaves into mainland Portugal and India, not for humanitarian reasons, but because they were a necessary work force in Brazil. At the same time, he encouraged the trade of black slaves ("the pieces", in the terms of that time) to that colony, and with the support and direct involvement of the Marquis of Pombal, two companies were founded - theCompanhia do Grão-Pará e Maranhão and theCompanhia Geral de Pernambuco e Paraíba - whose main activity was the trafficking of slaves, mostly Africans, to Brazilian lands.[67][68]
He reorganised the army and navy and ended legal discrimination against differentChristian sects.[69] He created companies and guilds to regulate commercial activity and one of the firstappellation systems by demarcating the region for production ofPort to ensure the wine's quality. This was the first attempt to control wine quality and production in Europe. He imposed strict law upon all classes of Portuguese society, along with a widespread review of the tax system. These reforms gained him enemies in the upper classes.
Lisbon was struck by a majorearthquake on November 1st 1755, magnitude estimated to have been between 7.7 and 9.0, with casualties ranging from 12,000 to 50,000.[70] Following the earthquake, Joseph I gave his prime minister more power, and Carvalho de Melo became anenlightened despot. In 1758 Joseph I was wounded in an attempted assassination. TheMarquis of Távora, several members of his family and even servants were tortured and executed in public with extreme brutality (even by the standards of the time), as alleged part of theTávora affair.[71][72][73]
The following year, theJesuits weresuppressed and expelled. This crushed opposition by publicly demonstrating even the aristocracy was powerless before Pombal. Further titled "Marquês de Pombal" in 1770, he ruled Portugal until Joseph I's death in 1777. The new ruler, QueenMaria I of Portugal, disliked Pombal because of his excesses, and upon her accession to the throne, withdrew all his political offices. Pombal was banished to his estate atPombal, where he died in 1782.
Historians argue that Pombal's "enlightenment," while far-reaching, was primarily a mechanism for enhancing autocracy at the expense of individual liberty and especially an apparatus for crushing opposition, suppressing criticism, and furthering colonial exploitation and consolidating personal control, and profit.[74]
In 1820,constitutionalist insurrections took place atPorto and Lisbon, and King John VI and his court were forced to return to mainland Portugal in 1821.[77] Lisbon regained its status as the capital of Portugal when Brazil declared its independence in 1822. The death of KingJohn VI in 1826 led to a crisis of royal succession. His eldest son,Pedro I of Brazil, briefly becamePedro IV of Portugal, but neither the Portuguese nor Brazilians wanted a unified monarchy; consequently, Pedro abdicated the Portuguese crown in favor of his 7-year-old daughter,Maria da Glória, on the condition that when she came of age she would marry his brother,Miguel. Dissatisfaction at Pedro's constitutional reforms led the "absolutist" faction of landowners and the church to proclaim Miguel king in February 1828. This led to theLiberal Wars, also known as theWar of the Two Brothers or thePortuguese Civil War, in which Pedro forced Miguel to abdicate and go into exile in 1834 and place his daughter on the throne as QueenMaria II of Portugal.
In pink are areas in Africa claimed by Portugal before the 1890 British Ultimatum
After 1815 the Portuguese expanded their trading ports along the African coast, moving inland to take control of Angola and Mozambique. The slave trade was abolished in 1836. InPortuguese India, trade flourished in the colony ofGoa, with its subsidiary colonies ofMacau, near Hong Kong, andTimor, north of Australia. The Portuguese successfully introduced Catholicism and the Portuguese language into their colonies, while most settlers continued to head to Brazil.[78][79]
On 11 January 1890, theBritish government deliveredan ultimatum to Portugal, demanding the withdrawal of Portuguese forces from the area between Portugal's colonies ofMozambique andAngola. The area had been claimed by Portugal as part of its colonialistPink Map project, but Britain disputed these claims, mostly due toCecil Rhodes' aspirations to create aCape to Cairo Railway, which was intended to link all British colonies via a single railway. The government of Portugal quietly accepted the ultimatum and withdrew their forces from the disputed area, leading to a widespread backlash among the Portuguese public, who viewed acceptance of the British demands as a humiliation.[80]
Illustration alluding to theProclamation of the Portuguese Republic on 5 October 1910.
On 1 February 1908, KingCarlos I and his son and heir,Luís Filipe, Prince Royal, wereassassinated by Republican andCarbonária members.[81] Two years later, on 5 October 1910, acoup d'état overthrew the near 800-year-old Monarchy and the Republic was proclaimed. During World War I, Portugal helped theAllies fight theCentral Powers; however the war hurt its weak economy. Political instability and economic weaknesses were fertile ground for chaos and unrest during theFirst Portuguese Republic. Several coups occurred during the First Republic, like the failedMonarchy of the North coup, but others had success, like theDecember 1917 coup d'état, which led to the rise ofSidónio Pais to power. In 1921, theBloody Night revolt ended in the assassinaton of the Prime Minister and other high ranking officials of the Republic.
Portugal remained neutral inWorld War II. From the 1940s to 1960s, Portugal was a founding member ofNATO,OECD, theEuropean Free Trade Association (EFTA) and joined theUnited Nations in 1955. New economic development projects and relocation of mainland Portuguese citizens into the overseas provinces in Africa were initiated, withAngola andMozambique being the main targets of those initiatives. These actions were used to affirm Portugal's status as atranscontinental nation and not a colonial empire.
Pro-Indian residents ofDadra and Nagar Haveli, separated those territories from Portuguese rule in 1954.[82] In 1961,Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá's annexation by theRepublic of Dahomey was the start of a process that led to the dissolution of the centuries-old Portuguese Empire. Another forcible retreat occurred in 1961 when Portugal refused to relinquishGoa. The Portuguese were involved in armed conflict inPortuguese India against theIndian Armed Forces. Theoperations resulted in the defeat and loss of the remaining Portuguese territories in theIndian subcontinent. The Portuguese regime refused to recognise Indian sovereignty over the annexed territories, which continued to be represented in the National Assembly until the coup of 1974.
Also in the early 1960s the independence movements in the Portuguese provinces ofPortuguese Angola,Portuguese Mozambique, andPortuguese Guinea in Africa, resulted in thePortuguese Colonial War (lasting from 1961 till 1974). The war mobilised around 1.4 million men for military or for civilian support service,[83] and led to large casualties. Throughout the colonial war period Portugal dealt with increasing dissent, arms embargoes and other punitive sanctions imposed by the international community. The authoritarian and conservative Estado Novo regime, tried to preserve the empire.[84]
Salazar governed until 1968, when he suffered abrain hemorrhage,[85] and was replaced byMarcelo Caetano, which raised hopes of a "liberalization" of the Estado Novo regime, called theMarcelist Spring, but those hopes were soon crushed.[86]
Crowd celebrates on aPanhard EBR armoured car inLisbon on 25 April 1974
The government and army resisted thedecolonization of its overseas territories until April 1974, when a left-wing militarycoup in Lisbon, the Carnation Revolution, led the way for the independence of territories, as well as the restoration of democracy after two years of a transitional period known as PREC (Processo Revolucionário Em Curso). This period was characterised by power disputes between left- and right-wing political forces. By the summer of 1975, the tensions were so high, that the country was on the verge of civil war. Forces connected to the extreme left-wing launched another coup on 25 November, but a military faction, the Group of Nine, initiated a counter-coup.
The Group of Nine emerged victorious, preventing the establishment of acommunist state and ending political instability. The retreat from the overseas territories prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese citizens from its African territories.[87][88] Over one millionPortuguese refugees fled the former Portuguese provinces, as white settlers were usually not considered part of the former colonies. By 1975, all Portuguese African territories were independent and Portugal heldits first democratic elections in 50 years.
Portugal continued to be governed by aNational Salvation Junta until thePortuguese legislative election of 1976. It was won by thePortuguese Socialist Party and Mário Soares, its leader, became prime minister. Soares would be prime minister from 1976 to 1978 and 1983 to 1985. Soares tried to resume the economic growth and development record that had been achieved before the Carnation Revolution. He initiated the process of accession to theEuropean Economic Community (EEC).
After the transition to democracy, Portugal flipped betweensocialism and adherence to theneoliberal model.Land reform andnationalisations were enforced; thePortuguese Constitution was rewritten to accommodate socialist and communist principles. Until the revisions of 1982 and 1989, the constitution had references to socialism, the rights of workers, and the desirability of asocialist economy. Portugal's economic situation after the revolution obliged the government to pursueInternational Monetary Fund (IMF)-monitored stabilisation programmes in 1977–78 and 1983–85.
In 1986 Portugal alongside Spain, joined the European Economic Community which later became theEuropean Union (EU). Portugal's economy progressed considerably as a result ofEuropean Structural and Investment Funds and companies' easier access to foreign markets.
Portugal occupies an area on theIberian Peninsula (referred to asthe continent by most Portuguese) and two archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean:Madeira and theAzores. It lies between latitudes30° and42° N, and longitudes32° and6° W.
Continental Portugal is split by its main river, theTagus, that flows from Spain and disgorges in theTagus Estuary at Lisbon, before escaping into the Atlantic. The northern landscape is mountainous towards the interior with several plateaus indented by river valleys, whereas the south, including theAlgarve and theAlentejo regions, is characterized by rolling plains.[89]
Portugal's highest peak isMount Pico onPico Island in the Azores. The archipelagos of Madeira and the Azores are scattered within the Atlantic Ocean: the Azores straddling theMid-Atlantic Ridge on a tectonic triple junction, and Madeira along a range formed byin-platehotspot geology. Geologically, these islands were formed by volcanic and seismic events. The last terrestrial volcanic eruption occurred in 1957–58 (Capelinhos) and minor earthquakes occur sporadically.
The exclusive economic zone, a sea zone over which the Portuguese have special rights in exploration and have use of marine resources, covers an area of 1,727,408 km2 (666,956 sq mi). This is the 3rd largestexclusive economic zone of the European Union and the 20th largest in the world.[90]
The term "provinces" (Portuguese:províncias) has been used throughout history to identify regions ofcontinental Portugal. Current legalsubdivisions of Portugal do not coincide with the provinces, but several provinces, in their 19th- and 20th-century versions, still correspond to culturally relevant, strongly self-identifying categories. They include:
Annual average rainfall in the mainland varies from just over 3,200 millimetres (126.0 in) on thePeneda-Gerês National Park to less than 500 millimetres (19.7 in) in southern parts ofAlentejo.Mount Pico receives the largest annual rainfall (over 6,250 millimetres (246.1 in) per year), according toInstituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera. In some areas, such as the Guadiana basin, annual diurnal average temperatures can be as high as 24.5 °C (76.1 °F), and summer's highest temperatures are routinely over 40 °C (104 °F). The record high of 47.4 °C (117.3 °F) was recorded inAmareleja.[93][94]
Snowfalls occur regularly, in the winter, in the interior North and Centre, particularly on the mountains. In winter, temperatures may drop below −10.0 °C (14.0 °F). In these places snow can fall any time from October to May. In the South snowfalls are rare but still occur in the highest elevations. While the official absolute minimum byIPMA is −16.0 °C (3.2 °F) inPenhas da Saúde andMiranda do Douro, lower temperatures have been recorded. Continental Portugal receives around 2,300-3,200 hours of sunshine annually, an average of 4–6 hours in winter and 10–12 hours in the summer, with higher values in the south-east, south-west, Algarve coast and lower in the north-west.
Portugal's central west and southwest coasts have an extreme oceanseasonal lag; sea temperatures are warmer in October than in July and are their coldest in March. The averagesea surface temperature on the west coast of mainland Portugal varies from 14–16 °C (57.2–60.8 °F) in January−March to 19–21 °C (66.2–69.8 °F) in August−October while on the south coast it ranges from 16 °C (60.8 °F) in January−March and rises in the summer to about 22–23 °C (71.6–73.4 °F), occasionally reaching 26 °C (78.8 °F).[95] In the Azores, around 16 °C (60.8 °F) in February−April to 22–24 °C (71.6–75.2 °F) in July−September,[96] and in Madeira, around 18 °C (64.4 °F) in February−April to 23–24 °C (73.4–75.2 °F) in August−October.[97]
Azores and Madeira have a subtropical climate, although variations between islands exist. The Madeira and Azorean archipelagos have a narrower temperature range, with annual average temperatures exceeding 20 °C (68 °F) in some parts of the coast.[98] Some islands in Azores have drier months in the summer. Consequently, the islands of the Azores have been identified as having aMediterranean climate, while some islands (such asFlores orCorvo) are classified asHumid subtropical, transitioning into anOceanic climate at higher altitudes.Porto Santo Island in Madeira has a warm semi-arid climate. TheSavage Islands, which are part of the regional territory of Madeira and a nature reserve are unique in being classified as a desert climate with an annual average rainfall of approximately 150 millimetres (5.9 in).
Climate change in Portugal is causing rising temperatures and longer-lastingheat waves, decreases in average rainfall and increases in the number of extremely rainy days (causing droughts and floods), and rising sea levels which will threaten the country's many coastal populations.[99][100] Wildfires are quite common and a major issue in Portugal,[101] being the country with the highest percentage of burned area, on average, in the entireEuropean Union.[102][103][100]
Geographical and climatic conditions facilitate the introduction of exotic species that later turn to be invasive and destructive to the native habitats. Around 20 percent of the total number of extant species in continental Portugal areexotic.[108] Portugal is the second country in Europe with the highest number of threatened animal and plant species.[109][110] Portugal as a whole is an important stopover for migratory bird species.[111][112]
The large mammalian species of Portugal (deer,Iberian ibex,wild boar,red fox,Iberian wolf andIberian lynx) were once widespread throughout the country, but intense hunting, habitat degradation and growing pressure from agriculture and livestock reduced population on a large scale in the 19th and early 20th century, others, such as thePortuguese ibex were even led to extinction. Today, these animals are re-expanding their native range.[113][114]
The Head of State is thePresident of the Republic, elected to a five-year term by direct,universal suffrage; the current president isMarcelo Rebelo de Sousa. Although largely a ceremonial post,[123] Presidential powers include the appointment of the Prime Minister and other members of the Government; dismissing the Prime Minister; dissolving the Assembly;vetoing legislation (which may be overridden by the Assembly); and declaring war (only on the advice of the Government and with the authorisation of the Assembly).[124] The President has also supervisory andreserve powers and is theex officio Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. The President is advised on issues of importance by theCouncil of State.[125]
TheAssembly of the Republic is a single chamber parliament composed of a maximum of 230 deputies elected for a four-year term.[126] The Government is headed by thePrime Minister and includes Ministers and Secretaries of State, that have full executive powers;[127] the current prime minister isLuís Montenegro.[128] TheCouncil of Ministers – under the Prime Minister (or the President at the latter's request) and the Ministers – acts as thecabinet.[129] TheCourts are organized into several levels, among the judicial, administrative and fiscal branches. TheSupreme Courts are institutions of last resort/appeal. A thirteen-memberConstitutional Court oversees the constitutionality of the laws.[130]
Olivenza: Under Portuguese sovereignty since 1297, the municipality of Olivença was ceded to Spain under theTreaty of Badajoz in 1801, after theWar of the Oranges. Portugal claimed it back in 1815 under theTreaty of Vienna. However, since the 19th century, it has been continuously ruled by Spain which considers the territory theirs not onlyde facto but alsode jure.[132]
Savage Islands: A small group of mostly uninhabited islets which fall under Portuguese Madeira's regional autonomous jurisdiction. Found in 1364 by Italian mariners under the service ofPrince Henry The Navigator,[133] it was first noted by Portuguese navigator Diogo Gomes de Sintra in 1438. Historically, the islands have belonged to private Portuguese owners from the 16th century on, until 1971[134] when the government purchased them and established a natural reserve area covering the whole archipelago. The islands have been claimed by Spain since 1911,[135] and the dispute has caused some periods of political tension between the two countries.[136] The main problem for Spain's attempts to claim these small islands, has been not so much their intrinsic value, but the fact that they expand Portugal'sexclusive economic zone considerably to the south, in detriment of Spain.[137] The Selvagens Islands have been tentatively added to UNESCO's world heritage list in 2017.[138]
In addition to the three branches of the armed forces, there is theNational Republican Guard, a security force subject to military law and organisation (gendarmerie) comprising 25,000 personnel. This force is under the authority of both the Defence and the Interior Ministry. It has provided detachments for participation in international operations in Iraq and East Timor. The United States maintains a military presence with 770 troops in theLajes Air Base atTerceira Island, in the Azores. TheAllied Joint Force Command Lisbon (JFC Lisbon) is one of the three main subdivisions ofNATO'sAllied Command Operations.
The Portuguese legal system is part of the civil law legal system. The main laws include the Constitution (1976), thePortuguese Civil Code (1966) and thePenal Code of Portugal (1982), as amended. Other relevant laws are theCommercial Code (1888) and theCivil Procedure Code (1961). Portuguese laws were applied in the formercolonies and territories and continue to be influences for those countries. The supreme national courts are theSupreme Court of Justice and theConstitutional Court. ThePublic Ministry, headed by the Attorney General of the Republic, constitutes the independent body of public prosecutors.
Drugdecriminalisation was declared in 2001, making Portugal the first country to allow usage and personal possession of all common drugs. Despite criticism from other European nations, who stated Portugal's drug consumption would tremendously increase, overall drug use has declined along withHIV infection cases, which dropped 50 percent by 2009. Overall drug use among 16- to 18-year-olds declined, however use of marijuana rose slightly.[141][142][143]
LGBT rights in Portugal have increased substantially in the 21st century. In 2003, Portugal added an anti-discrimination employment law on the basis of sexual orientation.[144] In 2004, sexual orientation was added to the Constitution as part of the protected from discrimination characteristics.[145] In 2010, Portugal became the sixth country in Europe and eighth in the world to legalizesame-sex marriage at the national level.[146]
LGBT adoption has been allowed since 2016[147] as has female same-sex couple access to medically assisted reproduction.[148] In 2017 theLaw of Gender Identity,[149] simplified the legal process ofgender and name change fortransgender people, making it easier for minors to change theirsex marker in legal documents.[150] In 2018, the right togender identity andgender expression self-determination became protected,intersex minors became protected by law from unnecessarymedical procedures "until the minor gender identity manifests" and the right of protection from discrimination on the basis ofsex characteristics became protected by the same law.[151]
Euthanasia has been legalised after several parliamentary reviews. National residents over 18 who are terminally ill and in extreme suffering, but who can still decide to, have the legal right to request for assisted dying. Non-residents or foreigners are not allowed euthanasia.[152] Despite the Parliamentary approval in 2023, Euthanasia legislation is yet to be defined and implemented.[153][154]
Portugal has 49 correctional facilities in total run by the Ministry of Justice. They include seventeen central prisons, four special prisons, twenty-seven regional prisons, and one 'Cadeia de Apoio' (Support Detention Centre).[155] As of 1 January 2023[update], their current prison population is about 12,257 inmates, which comes to about 0.12% of their entire population.[156] The incarceration rate has been on the rise since 2010, with a 15% increase over the past eight years.[157]
Administratively, Portugal is divided into 308municipalities (municípios orconcelhos), which after a reform in2013 are subdivided into 3,092 civil parishes (Portuguese:freguesia). Operationally, the municipality and civil parish, along with the national government, are the only legallylocal administrative units identified by the government of Portugal (for example, cities, towns or villages have no standing in law, although may be used as catchment for the defining services).Continental Portugal is agglomerated into 18 districts, while the archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are governed asautonomous regions; the largest units, established since 1976, are either mainland Portugal and theautonomous regions of Portugal (Azores andMadeira).
By the end of 2023, GDP (PPP) was $47,209 per capita, according to theWorld Bank.[175] In 2023, Portugal had the 5th lowest GDP per capita (PPP) of the eurozone out of 20 members, and the 8th lowest of the European Union out of 27 member-states.[176] In 2022,labour productivity had fallen to the fourth lowest among the 27 member-states of the European Union (EU) and was 35% lower than the EU average.[177]
Portugal was an original member of theeurozone. The national currency, theeuro (€) started transitioning from thePortuguese Escudo in 2000 and consolidated in 2002. Portugal's central bank is theBanco de Portugal, an integral part of theEuropean System of Central Banks. Most industries, businesses and financial institutions are concentrated in theLisbon andPorto metropolitan areas – theSetúbal,Aveiro,Braga,Coimbra,Leiria andFaro districts are the biggest economic centres outside these two main areas.
Since theCarnation Revolution of 1974, which culminated in the end of one of Portugal's most notablephases of economic expansion,[178] a significant change has occurred in the nation's annual economic growth.[179] After the turmoil of the 1974 revolution, Portugal tried to adapt to a changingmodern global economy, a process that continues. Since the 1990s, Portugal'spublic consumption-basedeconomic development model has changed to a system focused on exports, privateinvestment and the development of thehigh-tech sector. Consequently, business services have overtaken more traditional industries such as textiles, clothing, footwear andcork (Portugal is the world's leading cork producer),[180] wood products and beverages.[181]
In the 2010s, the Portuguese economy suffered its most severe recession since the 1970s, which resulted in the country receiving a 78-billion-euro bailout from theEuropean Union and theInternational Monetary Fund in May 2011.[182] By end of 2023, the share of debt as percentage of GDP fell below 100 percent, to 97.9%,[183] and fell further to 95.3% by the end of 2024.[184]
In 2024, the average gross salary was €1,602 per month,[185] and theminimum wage, which is regulated by law, is €870 per month (paid 14 times per annum) as of 2025.[186] TheGlobal Competitiveness Report for 2019, published by theWorld Economic Forum, placed Portugal 34th. The Numbeo quality of life index placed Portugal 20th in the world in 2023.[163]
TheOECD economic reports since 2018 show recovery.[187][188][189] Rents and house prices have skyrocketed in Portugal, particularly Lisbon, where rents jumped 37% in 2022. The 8% inflation rate in the same year exacerbated the problem.[190] According to the IMF, Portugal's economic recovery from the COVID pandemic in 2022 was substantially better than the EU average. Although modest, economic growth continued in 2023 while inflation continued decreasing to 5%.[191][192] In 2024 the annual inflation continued a downward trend ending at 2.3% and accompanied by a small economic growth.[193][194] In 2025, the economy is expected to continue growing at 1.9 annually, while inflation is forecast at 2.1% for the fiscal year. These moderately optimistic indicators are supported by increased private consumption, investment, employment growth and unemployment easing.[195]
Agriculture in Portugal is based on small to medium-sized family-owned dispersed units. However, the sector also includes larger scaleintensive farming, export-orientedagrobusinesses. The country produces a variety of crops and livestock products, including: tomatoes,citrus,green vegetables,rice,wheat,barley,maize,olives,oilseeds,nuts,cherries,bilberry,table grapes,edible mushrooms,dairy products,poultry andbeef. According toFAO, Portugal is the top producer ofcork andcarob in the world, accounting for about 50% and 30% of world production, respectively.[196] It is the third largest exporter ofchestnuts and third largest European producer ofpulp.[197] Portugal is among the world's top ten largestolive oil producers and fourth largest exporter.[198] The country is one of the world's largest exporters ofwine, reputed for its fine wines.Forestry has played an important economic role among the rural communities and industry. In 2001, the gross agricultural product accounted for 4% of the economy; in 2022 it was 2%.[199]
Travel andtourism is an important part of Portugal's economy. As of 2023, nearly half of real GDP growth was due to the tourism sector, with tourism accounting for 16.5% of GDP.[200] It has been necessary for the country to focus upon its niche attractions, such as health, nature and rural tourism, to stay ahead of its competitors.[201]
Portugal is among the top 20 most-visited countries in the world, receiving more than 26,5 million foreign tourists by 2023.[202] In 2014, Portugal was electedThe Best European Country byUSA Today.[203] In 2017, Portugal was elected bothEurope's Leading Destination[204] and in 2018 and 2019,World's Leading Destination[205]
Among the largest non-state-run research institutions are theInstituto Gulbenkian de Ciência and theChampalimaud Foundation, a neuroscience and oncology research centre. National and multinational high-tech and industrial companies, are responsible for research and development projects. One of the oldest learned societies of Portugal is theSciences Academy of Lisbon, founded in 1779.
Portugal has a 68,732 km (42,708 mi) road network, of which almost 3,000 km (1,864 mi) are part of system of 44 motorways. On many highways, a toll needs to be paid (seeVia Verde).Vasco da Gama bridge is the longest bridge in theEU (the second longest in Europe) at 12.345 km (7.671 mi).[212][213]
Continental Portugal's 89,015 km2 (34,369 sq mi) territory is serviced by four international airports located near the principal cities ofLisbon,Porto,Faro andBeja. Lisbon's geographical position makes it a stopover for many foreign airlines at several airports within the country. The primaryflag-carrier isTAP Air Portugal, although many other domestic airlines provide services within and without the country.
The most important airports are inLisbon,Porto,Faro,Funchal (Madeira), andPonta Delgada (Azores), managed by the national airport authority groupANA – Aeroportos de Portugal. Anew airport, to replace the current Lisbon airport, has been planned for more than 50 years, but it has been always postponed by a series of reasons.[214]
A national railway system that extends throughout the country and into Spain, is supported and administered byComboios de Portugal (CP).Rail transport of passengers and goods is derived using the 2,791 km (1,734 mi) of railway lines currently in service, of which 1,430 km (889 mi) are electrified and about 900 km (559 mi) allow train speeds greater than 120 km/h (75 mph). The railway network is managed byInfraestruturas de Portugal while the transport of passengers and goods are the responsibility of CP, both public companies. In 2006, the CP carried 133,000,000 passengers and 9,750,000tonnes (9,600,000long tons; 10,700,000short tons) of goods.
In Portugal,Lisbon tram services have been supplied by theCompanhia de Carris de Ferro de Lisboa (Carris), for over a century. InPorto,a tram network, of which only a tourist line on the shores of theDouro remains, began construction on 12 September 1895 (a first for theIberian Peninsula). All major cities and towns have their own local urban transport network, as well as taxi services.
Portugal has considerable wind and hydropower resources. In 2006, the world's then largestsolar power plant, theMoura Photovoltaic Power Station, began operating, while the world's first commercialwave power farm, theAguçadoura Wave Farm, opened in theNorte region (2008). By 2006, 66% of the country's electrical production was from coal and fuel power plants, while 29% were derived fromhydroelectric dams, and 6% bywind energy.[218] In 2008, renewable energy resources were producing 43% of the nation's electricity, even as hydroelectric production decreased with severe droughts.[219] As of 2010, electricity exports had outnumbered imports and 70% of energy came from renewable sources.[220]
Portugal's national energy transmission company,Redes Energéticas Nacionais (REN), uses modelling to predict weather, especially wind patterns. Before the solar/wind revolution, Portugal had generated electricity from hydropower plants on its rivers for decades. New programmes combine wind and water: wind-driven turbines pump water uphill at night; then water flows downhill by day, generating electricity, when consumer demand is highest. Portugal's distribution system is now two-way. It draws electricity small generators, like rooftop solar panels.
In 2023 Portugal emitted around 339 million tonnes ofgreenhouse gases (about 5 tonnes per person), equivalent to around 1% of global total emissions.[221] As a EU member state, Portugal is part of their joint plan to reduce emissions by a minimum of 55% by 2030, compared to the level of emissions in 1990. Portugal has committed to carbon neutrality andnet zero by 2050.[222]
Statistics Portugal (Portuguese:INE –Instituto Nacional de Estatística) estimates that, by 31 December 2023, the population was 10,639,726, of which 52.2% was female and 47.8% male.[10][223] In 2024 the median life expectancy was 82.8 years[224] and United Nations projections point to 90 or above, by 2100.[225] The population has been relatively homogeneous for most of its history, with a single religion (Catholic church) and language.
Despite good economic development, the Portuguese have been the shortest in Europe since around 1890. This emerging height gap started in the 1840s and increased. A driving factor was modest real wage growth, given late industrialization and economic growth compared to the European core. Another determinant was delayedhuman capital formation.[226]
Portugal has to deal with low fertility levels: the country has experienced asub-replacement fertility rate since the 1980s.[227] The total fertility rate (TFR) as of 2024[update] was estimated at 1.36 children born/woman, one of the lowest in the world, similarly to countries such as Japan, South Korea, Italy, all well below the replacement rate of 2.1,[228][229] and considerably below the high of 5 children born per woman in 1911.[230] In 2016, 53% of births were to unmarried women.[231] Portugal's population has been steadily ageing and was the 11th oldest in the world, with a median age of 46 years in 2023. In the same year, it had the world's 4th highest number of citizens over 65 years, at 21.8% of the whole population.[232][233]
The structure of Portuguese society shows social inequality, which in 2019 placed the country 24th in theSocial Justice Index, in the EU.[234] In 2018, Portugal's parliament approved a budget plan for 2019 that included tax breaks for returning emigrants in a bid to attract back those who left during thefinancial crisis of 2007–2008.[235] According to projections by the national statistics office, Portugal's population will fall to 7.7 million by 2080 from 10.6 million and the population will continue to age.[236]
According to a National Statistics Institute (INE) study, conducted shortly after the 2021 census, between 2022 and 2023, 6,4 million people aged between 18 and 74 years old identified themselves as White (84%), more than 262,000 identify as Mixed-race (3%), nearly 170,000 as Black (2%), 57,000 as Asian (<1%), and 47,500 asRomani (<1%)[237]
Urbanization
Based on commuting patterns, OECD and Eurostat define eightmetropolitan areas of Portugal.[238] Only two have populations over 1 million, and since the 2013 local government reform, these are the only two which also have administrative legal status of metropolitan areas:Lisbon andPorto,[239][240] Several smaller metropolitan areas (Algarve,Aveiro,Coimbra,Minho andViseu)[240] also held this status from 2003 to 2008, when they were converted intointermunicipal communities, whose territories are roughly based on theNUTS III statistical regions.[241][240]
Foreigners living in Portugal as of 2022 by country of origin. Only communities with 1,000+ residents are shown.[243]
In 2023 Portugal had 10,639,726 inhabitants, of whom 1,044,606 accounted for legal resident foreigners[3][244] Resident foreigners make up approximately 10% of the population. These figures do not include Portuguese citizens of foreign descent, as in Portugal it is illegal to collect data based on ethnicity. For instance, more than 340,000 resident foreigners who acquiredPortuguese citizenship between 2008 and 2022 - and thus constitute around 3.27% of the country's population in 2022 - were not taken into account in immigration figures as they became official Portuguese citizens.[245] In 2022 alone, almost 21,000 foreign residents acquiredPortuguese citizenship, of which 11,170 were female and 9,674 were male.[246]
Portugal, for long a country of emigration (the vast majority ofBrazilians have Portuguese ancestry),[247] became a country of net immigration.[248] The influx of immigrants didn't come just from the lastIndian (Portuguese until 1961),African (Portuguese until 1975), andFar East Asian (Portuguese until 1999) overseas territories, but from other parts of the world as well. Even though in the aftermath of theCOVID-19 Pandemic, Portugal's emigration rate increased to 6.9‰ in 2022, it was still well below the immigration rate of around 11.3‰.[249][250] It is also noteworthy that the overwhelming majority of Portuguese emigrants tend to leave the country for short periods, with 56.8% of those having left the country in 2022 doing so for less than a year.[251]
It is estimated that over 30,000 seasonal, oftenillegal immigrants work inagriculture, mainly southern cities such asOdemira where they are often exploited by organised seasonal workers' networks. These migrants, who frequently arrive without due documentation or work contracts, make up over 90% of agricultural workers in the south of Portugal. Most are Southeast Asians from India,Bangladesh,Nepal, Pakistan andThailand. In the interior of theAlentejo there are many African workers. Significant numbers also come from Eastern Europe, Moldova, Ukraine, Romania and Brazil.[253]
A National Statistics Institute (INE) study, conducted between 2022 and 2023, found out that 1.4 million people, (13% of the population) have immigrant background, in which 947,500 are first generation immigrants, concentrated mainly in theLisbon metropolitan area and theAlgarve.[237] It is noteworthy that the survey was only carried out amongst people living legally in the country for at least one year at the time of the interview and that in 2022 the statistical office figures suggested that 16.1% of the country's population or 1,683,829 people were first generation immigrants.[255][256][257]
Roman Catholicism, which has a long history in Portugal, remains the dominant religion. Portugal has no official religion, though in the past, theCatholic Church in Portugal was thestate religion.[258][259]
Portugal is asecular state:church and state were formally separated during the First Portuguese Republic, and this was reiterated in the 1976Portuguese Constitution. Other than the Constitution, the two most important documents relating toreligious freedom in Portugal are the 1940 Concordata (later amended in 1971) between Portugal and theHoly See and the 2001 Religious Freedom Act. Many Portuguese holidays, festivals and traditions have a Christian origin or connotation.
Portuguese is the official language of Portugal.Mirandese is also recognised as a co-official regional language in some municipalities of North-Eastern Portugal. It is part of theAstur-Leonese group of languages.[260] An estimate of between 6,000 and 7,000 Mirandese speakers has been documented for Portugal.[261] Furthermore, a particular dialect known asBarranquenho, spoken inBarrancos, is also officially recognised and protected in Portugal since 2021.[262]Minderico, asociolect of the Portuguese language, is spoken by around 500 people in the town ofMinde.[263]
According to theInternational English Proficiency Index, Portugal has a high proficiency level in English, higher than those of other Romance-speaking European countries like France, Italy or Spain.[264]
The educational system is divided into preschool (for those under age six), basic education (nine years, in three stages, compulsory), secondary education (three years, compulsory since 2010), and higher education (subdivided in university andpolytechnic education). Universities are usually organised intofaculties. Institutes and schools are also common designations for autonomous subdivisions ofPortuguese higher education institutions.
The total adult literacy rate in Portugal was 99.8% in 2021.[265] According to theProgramme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2018, Portugal scored around theOECD average in reading, mathematics and science.[266][267] In reading and mathematics, mean performance in 2018 was close to the level observed in 2009 to 2015; in science, mean performance in 2018 was below that of 2015, and returned close to the level observed in 2009 and 2012, near below average.[268][269][270]
About 47.6% of college-age citizens (20 years old) attend one of Portugal's higher education institutions[271][272][273] (compared with 50% in the United States and 35% in the OECD on average). In addition to being a destination forinternational students, Portugal is also among the top places of origin for international students. All higher education students, both domestic and international, totalled 380,937 in 2005.
TheBologna process has been adopted by Portuguese universities and poly-technical institutes in 2006. Higher education in state-run educational establishments is provided on a competitive basis, a system ofnumerus clausus is enforced through a national database on student admissions. However, every higher education institution offers also a number of additional vacant places through other extraordinary admission processes for sportsmen, mature applicants (over 23 years old),international students, foreign students from theLusosphere, degree owners from other institutions, students from other institutions (academic transfer), former students (readmission), and course change, which are subject to specific standards and regulations set by each institution or course department.
In 2025, Portugal ranked as 23rd best healthcare system in the world,[276] which was visibly lower than the previous12th place in the 2000 World Health Organisation ranking of best public health systems in the world. The health system is characterised by three coexisting systems: the National Health Service (Serviço Nacional de Saúde, SNS), special social health insurance schemes for certain professions (health subsystems) and voluntary private health insurance. The SNS provides universal coverage. In addition, about 55% of the population is covered by the health subsystems,[277] 43% by private insurance schemes and another 12% by mutual funds.[278][279]
The Ministry of Health is responsible for developing health policy as well as managing the SNS. Five regional health administrations are in charge of implementing the national health policy objectives, developing guidelines and protocols and supervising health care delivery. Decentralisation efforts have aimed at shifting financial and management responsibility to the regional level. In practice, the autonomy of regional health administrations over budget setting and spending has been limited to primary care. The SNS is predominantly funded through general taxation. Employer (including the state) and employee contributions represent the main funding sources of the health subsystems. In addition, direct payments by the patient and voluntary health insurance premiums account for a large proportion of funding.
Similarly to other 'Eur-A countries', (Western Europe), most Portuguese die fromnoncommunicable diseases.[280] Mortality fromcardiovascular diseases (CVD) is around 30,000 deaths per year, a third of all annual deaths,[281] but its two main components, ischaemic heart disease and cerebrovascular disease, display inverse trends compared with the Eur-A, withcerebrovascular disease being the single biggest killer in Portugal, with more than 11,000 deaths per year.[282] Oncological diseases represent 22% of all deaths in the country,[280] with lung and breast cancer cases being lower, and cervical and prostate cancer being more frequent. Diabetes mortality rates have been decreasing, from 4.5% in 2010 down to 2.8% in 2021.[280]
Portugal'sinfant mortality rate (IMR) stood at 2,25 deaths per 1,000 live births as of 2024.[283] A Eurostat opinion-poll in 2023 found that 55.4% of adults rated their health as good or very good, the third lowest rate collected in theEuropean Union.[284] The largest university hospital in the country isHospital de Santa Maria, Lisbon.[285]
Portugal has developed a specific culture while being influenced by various civilisations that have crossed the European continent and Mediterranean, or were introduced when it played an active role during theAge of Discovery. In the 1990s and 2000s (decade), Portugal modernised its public cultural facilities, in addition to theCalouste Gulbenkian Foundation established in 1956 in Lisbon.
Traditional architecture is distinctive and include theManueline, also known as Portuguese lateGothic a sumptuous, composite Portuguese style of architectural ornamentation of the first decades of the 16th century, followed byPombaline style of the 18th century.
Portuguese cuisine is diverse, part of theAtlantic diet. A significant ingredient in the Portuguese diet is drycod (bacalhau in Portuguese). They say that the Portuguese have mastered 365 different ways to prepare codfish, meaning a cod dish for each day of the year, to name a fewrecipes:bacalhau à Brás,bacalhau à Gomes de Sá,bacalhau com natas, bacalhau à Minhota, bacalhau espiritual, bacalhau à Lagareiro, bacalhau assado,bacalhau à Zé do Pipo,pastéis de bacalhau. Other fish recipes include grilledsardines,mackerel,[290]sea bream, andcaldeirada, a tomato-basedstew that can be made from several types of fish or shellfish, with a mix of onion, garlic, bay leaf, potatoes, peppers, parsley.[291]
The 20th century saw the arrival ofModernism, and along with it came the most prominent Portuguese painters:Amadeo de Souza-Cardoso, who was heavily influenced by French painters, particularly the Delaunays (Robert andSonia).[301] Among his best-known works isCanção Popular – a Russa e o Fígaro. Other great modernist painters/writers includeCarlos Botelho andAlmada Negreiros, friend to the poetFernando Pessoa, who painted Pessoa's portrait. He was deeply influenced by bothCubist andFuturist trends.[302][303]
Portuguese literature, one of the earliest Western literatures, developed through text as well as song. Until 1350, thePortuguese-Galiciantroubadours spread their literary influence to most of the Iberian Peninsula,[309] like KingD. Dinis (1261–1325) who became famous for his poetry. Other kings would write and sponsor works of literature across Portuguese history, likeD. Fernando (1367–1383) who supported Pêro Menino in writing oLivro da Falcoaria.[56]
In water, Portugal has three major sports:swimming,water polo andsurfing. Portugal had success incanoeing with several world and European champions, such as olympic medalistFernando Pimenta. Annually, the country hosts one of the stages of theWorld Surf League men's and women'sChampionship Tour, theMEO Rip Curl Pro Portugal at theSupertubos inPeniche. Northern Portugal has its own originalmartial art,Jogo do Pau, in which fighters use staffs to confront one or several opponents. Other popular sport-related recreational outdoor activities includeairsoft, fishing,golf, hiking, hunting andorienteering. Portugal is one of the world's leadinggolf destinations.[355][356]
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