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Members of the Academy in 1667 with Louis XIV

Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testablehypotheses andpredictions about the universe.[page needed] Modern science is typically divided into two – or three – major branches: thenatural sciences, which study thephysical world, and thesocial sciences, which study individuals and societies. While referred to as theformal sciences, the study oflogic,mathematics, andtheoretical computer science are typically regarded as separate because they rely ondeductive reasoning instead of thescientific method as their main methodology. Meanwhile,applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine. (Full article...)

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  • Image 1 Composite male skeleton in the George C. Page Museum at the La Brea Tar Pits The Columbian mammoth (Mammuthus columbi) is an extinct species of mammoth that inhabited North America from southern Canada to Costa Rica during the Pleistocene epoch. The Columbian mammoth descended from Eurasian steppe mammoths that colonized North America during the Early Pleistocene around 1.5–1.3 million years ago, and later experienced hybridisation with the woolly mammoth lineage. The Columbian mammoth was among the last mammoth species, and the pygmy mammoths evolved from them on the Channel Islands of California. The closest extant relative of the Columbian and other mammoths is the Asian elephant. (Full article...)
    Image 1

    Composite male skeleton in theGeorge C. Page Museum at the La Brea Tar Pits

    TheColumbian mammoth (Mammuthus columbi) is anextinct species ofmammoth that inhabited North America from southern Canada to Costa Rica during thePleistocene epoch. The Columbian mammoth descended from Eurasiansteppe mammoths that colonized North America during theEarly Pleistocene around 1.5–1.3 million years ago, and later experiencedhybridisation with thewoolly mammoth lineage. The Columbian mammoth was among the last mammoth species, and thepygmy mammoths evolved from them on theChannel Islands of California. The closestextant relative of the Columbian and other mammoths is theAsian elephant. (Full article...)
  • Image 2 Lycoperdon perlatum, popularly known as the common puffball, warted puffball, gem-studded puffball or devil's snuff-box, is a species of puffball fungus in the family Agaricaceae. It is a medium-sized puffball with a round fruit body tapering to a wide stalk, and dimensions of 1.5 to 6 cm (1⁄2 to 2+1⁄4 in) wide by 3 to 10 cm (1+1⁄4 to 4 in) tall. It is off-white with a top covered in short spiny bumps or "jewels", which are easily rubbed off to leave a netlike pattern on the surface. When mature it becomes brown and a hole in the top opens to release spores in a burst when the body is compressed by touch or falling raindrops. (Full article...)
    Image 2

    Lycoperdon perlatum, popularly known as thecommon puffball,warted puffball,gem-studded puffball ordevil's snuff-box, is a species ofpuffball fungus in the familyAgaricaceae. It is a medium-sized puffball with a roundfruit body tapering to a wide stalk, and dimensions of 1.5 to 6 cm (12 to2+14 in) wide by3 to 10 cm (1+14 to 4 in) tall. It is off-white with a top covered in short spiny bumps or "jewels", which are easily rubbed off to leave a netlike pattern on the surface. When mature it becomes brown and a hole in the top opens to releasespores in a burst when the body is compressed by touch or falling raindrops. (Full article...)
  • Image 3 Clement Smythe's 1822 sketch of the chamber at Smythe's Megalith. It was destroyed the same day it was discovered. Smythe's Megalith, also known as the Warren Farm Chamber, was a chambered long barrow near the village of Aylesford in the south-eastern English county of Kent. Probably constructed in the 4th millennium BCE, during Britain's Early Neolithic period, it was discovered in 1822, at which point it was dismantled. Built out of earth and at least five local sarsen megaliths, the long barrow consisted of a roughly rectangular earthen tumulus with a stone chamber in its eastern end. Human remains were deposited into this chamber. (Full article...)
    Image 3

    Clement Smythe's 1822 sketch of the chamber at Smythe's Megalith. It was destroyed the same day it was discovered.

    Smythe's Megalith, also known as theWarren Farm Chamber, was achambered long barrow near the village ofAylesford in thesouth-eastern English county ofKent. Probably constructed in the4th millennium BCE, duringBritain's Early Neolithic period, it was discovered in 1822, at which point it was dismantled. Built out of earth and at least five localsarsenmegaliths, the long barrow consisted of a roughly rectangular earthentumulus with a stone chamber in its eastern end. Human remains were deposited into this chamber. (Full article...)
  • Image 4 Extrusion billets of aluminium in Yugoslavia, 1968 Aluminium (or aluminum) metal is very rare in native form, and the process to refine it from ores is complex, so for most of human history it was unknown. However, the compound alum has been known since the 5th century BCE and was used extensively by the ancients for dyeing. During the Middle Ages, its use for dyeing made it a commodity of international commerce. Renaissance scientists believed that alum was a salt of a new earth; during the Age of Enlightenment, it was established that this earth, alumina, was an oxide of a new metal. Discovery of this metal was announced in 1825 by Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted, whose work was extended by German chemist Friedrich Wöhler. (Full article...)
    Image 4
    Extrusion billets of aluminium piled up before a factory
    Extrusion billets of aluminium inYugoslavia, 1968

    Aluminium (or aluminum) metal is very rarein native form, and the process to refine it from ores is complex, so for most of human history it was unknown. However, the compoundalum has been known since the 5th century BCE and was used extensively by the ancients fordyeing. During theMiddle Ages, its use for dyeing made it acommodity of international commerce.Renaissance scientists believed that alum was a salt of a newearth; during theAge of Enlightenment, it was established that this earth,alumina, was an oxide of a new metal. Discovery of this metal was announced in 1825 by Danish physicistHans Christian Ørsted, whose work was extended by German chemistFriedrich Wöhler. (Full article...)
  • Image 5 Rossomyrmex proformicarum, a species of parasitic ant A parasitic ant is a type of ant that exploits the social structure of another ant species for its own survival and reproduction. The most common types of parasitic ants infiltrate a colony of a closely related species by using pheromones identical to those of the colony's workers to avoid conflict and blend in. The parasite lays eggs alongside existing ones for the host colony's worker ants to raise and nurture as their own. Other parasitic ants transport the host colony's pupae and larvae back to the parasite's colony, where the brood will be raised as their own. The host brood that were transported are unable to differentiate between the parasites and their own colony, and serve as worker ants for the parasites. The earliest parasitic ants most likely evolved 16 million years ago as temporary social parasites (ants that infiltrate a colony and kill the host queen). (Full article...)
    Image 5
    A close up photo of a species of parasitic ant
    Rossomyrmex proformicarum, a species of parasitic ant

    Aparasitic ant is a type ofant that exploits the social structure of another ant species for its own survival and reproduction. The most common types ofparasitic ants infiltrate acolony of a closely related species by usingpheromones identical to those of the colony's workers to avoid conflict and blend in. The parasite lays eggs alongside existing ones for thehost colony'sworker ants to raise and nurture as their own. Other parasitic ants transport the host colony'spupae andlarvae back to the parasite's colony, where the brood will be raised as their own. The host brood that were transported are unable to differentiate between the parasites and their own colony, and serve as worker ants for the parasites. The earliest parasitic ants most likely evolved 16 million years ago as temporary social parasites (ants that infiltrate a colony and kill the host queen). (Full article...)
  • Image 6 Photographed in her Smith College yearbook, 1924 Mary Alison Frantz (September 27, 1903 – February 1, 1995) was an American archaeological photographer and Byzantine scholar. She was the official photographer of the excavations of the Agora of Athens, and a prolific photographer of ancient Greek sculpture, including the Parthenon frieze and works from the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. (Full article...)
    Image 6

    Photographed in herSmith College yearbook, 1924

    Mary Alison Frantz (September 27, 1903 – February 1, 1995) was an American archaeological photographer andByzantine scholar. She was the official photographer of the excavations of theAgora of Athens, and a prolific photographer ofancient Greek sculpture, including theParthenon frieze and works from theTemple of Zeus at Olympia. (Full article...)
  • Image 7 Adult male at Chiltern, Victoria, Australia The red-capped robin (Petroica goodenovii) is a small passerine bird native to Australia. Found in drier regions across much of the continent, it inhabits scrub and open woodland. Like many brightly coloured robins of the family Petroicidae, it is sexually dimorphic. Measuring 10.5–12.5 cm (4.1–4.9 in) in length, the robin has a small, thin, black bill, and dark brown eyes and legs. The male has a distinctive red cap and red breast, black upperparts, and a black tail with white tips. The underparts and shoulders are white. The female is an undistinguished grey-brown. This species uses a variety of songs, and males generally sing to advertise territories and attract females. Birds are encountered in pairs or small groups, but the social behaviour has been little studied. (Full article...)
    Image 7

    Adult male at Chiltern, Victoria, Australia

    Thered-capped robin (Petroica goodenovii) is a smallpasserine bird native toAustralia. Found in drier regions across much of the continent, it inhabitsscrub and openwoodland. Like many brightly coloured robins of the familyPetroicidae, it issexually dimorphic. Measuring 10.5–12.5 cm (4.1–4.9 in) in length, the robin has a small, thin, black bill, and dark brown eyes and legs. The male has a distinctive red cap and red breast, black upperparts, and a black tail with white tips. The underparts and shoulders are white. The female is an undistinguished grey-brown. This species uses a variety of songs, and males generally sing toadvertise territories and attract females. Birds are encountered in pairs or small groups, but the social behaviour has been little studied. (Full article...)
  • Image 8 The Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) extinction event, formerly known as the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K–T) extinction event, was a major mass extinction of three-quarters of the plant and animal species on Earth approximately 66 million years ago. The event caused the extinction of all non-avian dinosaurs. Most other tetrapods weighing more than 25 kg (55 lb) also became extinct, with the exception of some ectothermic species such as sea turtles and crocodilians. It marked the end of the Cretaceous period, and with it the Mesozoic era, while heralding the beginning of the current geological era, the Cenozoic Era. In the geologic record, the K–Pg event is marked by a thin layer of sediment called the K–Pg boundary or K–T boundary, which can be found throughout the world in marine and terrestrial rocks. The boundary clay shows unusually high levels of the metal iridium, which is more common in asteroids than in the Earth's crust. (Full article...)
    Image 8

    TheCretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg)extinction event, formerly known as theCretaceous-Tertiary (K–T)extinction event, was a majormass extinction of three-quarters of the plant and animalspecies on Earth approximately 66 million years ago. The event caused the extinction of all non-aviandinosaurs. Most othertetrapods weighing more than 25 kg (55 lb) also became extinct, with the exception of someectothermic species such assea turtles andcrocodilians. It marked the end of theCretaceous period, and with it theMesozoic era, while heralding the beginning of the current geological era, theCenozoic Era. In thegeologic record, the K–Pg event is marked by a thin layer ofsediment called theK–Pg boundary or K–T boundary, which can be found throughout the world in marine and terrestrial rocks. The boundary clay shows unusually high levels of the metaliridium, which is more common inasteroids than in theEarth's crust. (Full article...)
  • Image 9 The asteroids of the inner Solar System and Jupiter: the belt is located between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars. The asteroid belt is a torus-shaped region in the Solar System, centered on the Sun and roughly spanning the space between the orbits of the planets Jupiter and Mars. It contains a great many solid, irregularly shaped bodies called asteroids or minor planets. The identified objects are of many sizes, but much smaller than planets, and, on average, are about one million kilometers (or six hundred thousand miles) apart. This asteroid belt is also called the main asteroid belt or main belt to distinguish it from other asteroid populations in the Solar System. (Full article...)
    Image 9
    The asteroids of the inner Solar System and Jupiter: the belt is located between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars.

    Theasteroid belt is atorus-shaped region in theSolar System, centered on theSun and roughly spanning the space between the orbits of the planetsJupiter andMars. It contains a great many solid, irregularly shaped bodies calledasteroids orminor planets. The identified objects are of many sizes, but much smaller thanplanets, and, on average, are about one million kilometers (or six hundred thousand miles) apart. This asteroid belt is also called themain asteroid belt ormain belt to distinguish it from other asteroid populations in the Solar System. (Full article...)
  • Image 10 Sheep (pl.: sheep) or domestic sheep (Ovis aries) are a domesticated, ruminant mammal typically kept as livestock. Although the term sheep can apply to other species in the genus Ovis, in everyday usage it almost always refers to domesticated sheep. Like all ruminants, sheep are members of the order Artiodactyla, the even-toed ungulates. Numbering a little over one billion, domestic sheep are also the most numerous species of sheep. An adult female is referred to as a ewe (/juː/ yoo), an intact male as a ram, occasionally a tup, a castrated male as a wether, and a young sheep as a lamb. (Full article...)
    Image 10

    Sheep (pl.: sheep) ordomestic sheep (Ovis aries) are adomesticated,ruminantmammal typically kept as livestock. Although the termsheep can apply to other species in the genusOvis, in everyday usage it almost always refers to domesticated sheep. Like all ruminants, sheep are members of theorderArtiodactyla, the even-toed ungulates. Numbering a little over one billion, domestic sheep are also the most numerous species of sheep. An adult female is referred to as aewe (/j/yoo), an intact male as aram, occasionally atup, acastrated male as awether, and a young sheep as alamb. (Full article...)
  • Image 11 The title page of the 1877 edition of Fertilisation of Orchids Fertilisation of Orchids is a book by English naturalist Charles Darwin published on 15 May 1862 under the full explanatory title On the Various Contrivances by Which British and Foreign Orchids Are Fertilised by Insects, and On the Good Effects of Intercrossing. Darwin's previous book, On the Origin of Species, had briefly mentioned evolutionary interactions between insects and the plants they fertilised, and this new idea was explored in detail. Field studies and practical scientific investigations that were initially a recreation for Darwin—a relief from the drudgery of writing—developed into enjoyable and challenging experiments. Aided in his work by his family, friends, and a wide circle of correspondents across Britain and worldwide, Darwin tapped into the contemporary vogue for growing exotic orchids. (Full article...)
    Image 11

    The title page of the 1877 edition
    ofFertilisation of Orchids

    Fertilisation of Orchids is a book by English naturalistCharles Darwin published on 15 May 1862 under the full explanatory titleOn the Various Contrivances by Which British and Foreign Orchids Are Fertilised by Insects, and On the Good Effects of Intercrossing. Darwin's previous book,On the Origin of Species, had briefly mentionedevolutionary interactions between insects and the plants they fertilised, and this new idea was explored in detail. Field studies and practical scientific investigations that were initially a recreation for Darwin—a relief from the drudgery of writing—developed into enjoyable and challenging experiments. Aided in his work by his family, friends, and a wide circle of correspondents across Britain and worldwide, Darwin tapped into the contemporary vogue for growing exoticorchids. (Full article...)
  • Image 12 Adult and juvenile specimens, Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Paris; the juvenile could possibly also be a Kangaroo Island emu The King Island emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae minor) is an extinct subspecies of emu that was endemic to King Island, in the Bass Strait between mainland Australia and Tasmania. Its closest relative may be the also extinct Tasmanian emu (D. n. diemenensis), as they belonged to a single population until less than 14,000 years ago, when Tasmania and King Island were still connected. The small size of the King Island emu may be an example of insular dwarfism. The King Island emu was the smallest of all known emus and had darker plumage than the mainland emu. It was black and brown and had naked blue skin on the neck, and its chicks were striped like those on the mainland. The subspecies was distinct from the likewise small and extinct Kangaroo Island emu (D. n. baudinianus) in a number of osteological details, including size. The behaviour of the King Island emu probably did not differ much from that of the mainland emu. The birds gathered in flocks to forage and during breeding time. They fed on berries, grass and seaweed. They ran swiftly and could defend themselves by kicking. The nest was shallow and consisted of dead leaves and moss. Seven to nine eggs were laid, which were incubated by both parents. (Full article...)
    Image 12

    Adult and juvenile specimens,Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Paris; the juvenile could possibly also be aKangaroo Island emu

    TheKing Island emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae minor) is anextinctsubspecies ofemu that wasendemic toKing Island, in theBass Strait between mainlandAustralia andTasmania. Its closest relative may be the also extinctTasmanian emu (D. n. diemenensis), as they belonged to a single population until less than 14,000 years ago, when Tasmania and King Island were still connected. The small size of the King Island emu may be an example ofinsular dwarfism. The King Island emu was the smallest of all known emus and had darkerplumage than the mainland emu. It was black and brown and had naked blue skin on the neck, and its chicks were striped like those on the mainland. The subspecies was distinct from the likewise small and extinctKangaroo Island emu (D. n. baudinianus) in a number ofosteological details, including size. The behaviour of the King Island emu probably did not differ much from that of the mainland emu. The birds gathered in flocks to forage and during breeding time. They fed on berries, grass and seaweed. They ran swiftly and could defend themselves by kicking. The nest was shallow and consisted of dead leaves and moss. Seven to nine eggs were laid, which wereincubated by both parents. (Full article...)
  • Image 13 ⛢ , Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun. It is a gaseous cyan-coloured ice giant. Most of the planet is made of water, ammonia, and methane in a supercritical phase of matter, which astronomy calls "ice" or volatiles. The planet's atmosphere has a complex layered cloud structure and has the lowest minimum temperature (49 K (−224 °C; −371 °F)) of all the Solar System's planets. It has a marked axial tilt of 82.23° with a retrograde rotation period of 17 hours and 14 minutes. This means that in an 84-Earth-year orbital period around the Sun, its poles get around 42 years of continuous sunlight, followed by 42 years of continuous darkness. (Full article...)
    Image 13
    ,♅
    Uranus is the seventhplanet from theSun. It is a gaseouscyan-colouredice giant. Most of the planet is made ofwater,ammonia, andmethane in asupercritical phase of matter, which astronomy calls "ice" orvolatiles.The planet's atmosphere has a complex layeredcloud structure and has the lowest minimum temperature (49 K (−224 °C; −371 °F)) of all theSolar System's planets. It has a markedaxial tilt of 82.23° with aretrograde rotation period of 17 hours and 14 minutes. This means that in an 84-Earth-yearorbital period around the Sun, its poles get around 42 years of continuous sunlight, followed by 42 years of continuous darkness. (Full article...)
  • Image 14 Typhoon Trami showing a well-defined eye at the center of the storm as seen from the International Space Station The eye is a region of mostly calm weather at the center of a tropical cyclone. The eye of a storm is a roughly circular area, typically 30–65 kilometers (19–40 miles; 16–35 nautical miles) in diameter. It is surrounded by the eyewall, a ring of towering thunderstorms where the most severe weather and highest winds of the cyclone occur. The cyclone's lowest barometric pressure occurs in the eye and can be as much as 15 percent lower than the pressure outside the storm. (Full article...)
    Image 14
    Space view of a well-defined eye of a tropical cyclone
    Typhoon Trami showing a well-defined eye at the center of the storm as seen from theInternational Space Station


    Theeye is a region of mostly calm weather at the center of atropical cyclone. The eye of a storm is a roughly circular area, typically 30–65 kilometers (19–40 miles; 16–35 nautical miles) in diameter. It is surrounded by theeyewall, a ring of toweringthunderstorms where the most severe weather and highest winds of the cyclone occur. The cyclone's lowestbarometric pressure occurs in the eye and can be as much as 15 percent lower than the pressure outside the storm. (Full article...)
  • Image 15 The Diamond Smugglers is a non-fiction book by Ian Fleming that was first published in the United Kingdom by Jonathan Cape on 29 November 1957. The book is based on two weeks of interviews Fleming undertook with John Collard, a member of the International Diamond Security Organisation (IDSO) and a former member of MI5; the IDSO was headed by Sir Percy Sillitoe, the ex-head of MI5 who worked for the diamond company De Beers. (Full article...)
    Image 15
    The Diamond Smugglers is a non-fiction book byIan Fleming that was first published in the United Kingdom byJonathan Cape on 29 November 1957. The book is based on two weeks of interviews Fleming undertook with John Collard, a member of the International Diamond Security Organisation (IDSO) and a former member ofMI5; the IDSO was headed bySir Percy Sillitoe, the ex-head of MI5 who worked for the diamond companyDe Beers. (Full article...)

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Helium atom ground state
Helium atom ground state
An illustration of thehelium atom, depicting thenucleus (pink) and theelectron cloud distribution (black). The nucleus (upper right) in helium-4 is in reality spherically symmetric and closely resembles the electron cloud, although for more complicated nuclei this is not always the case. The black bar is oneangstrom (10−10 m or100 pm).

Atoms are the basicparticles of thechemical elements and the fundamental building blocks ofmatter. An atom consists of anucleus ofprotons and generallyneutrons, surrounded by an electromagnetically bound swarm ofelectrons. The chemical elements are distinguished from each other by the number of protons that are in their atoms. For example, any atom that contains 11 protons issodium, and any atom that contains 29 protons iscopper. Atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons are calledisotopes of the same element. (Full article...)

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Many naturally occurring phenomena approximate a normal distribution.
Many naturally occurring phenomena approximate a normal distribution.
  • Integrate relatively new scientific knowledge and findings (major studies reported on by RS) into relevant articles
  • Expand2025 in science and/or other articles for science-related topics of the year (in the box on the right)
    • Create new articles for items of this article, mostly articles relating to new scientific fields/topics/findings (the page does not use redlinks anymore but you will quickly identify possible new articles when reading it;here you can find a version with over 60 redlinked examples)
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  • Find studies published under a compatible open license (like CC BY 4.0) andupload the studies' images with descriptions from the study and add these images to articles if they are relevant and useful there
    • When a study with a useful image is published under an incompatible or unclear license (or the image is published not in a study but elsewhere), you could contact its authors (Twitter/Mail) andask them to give you the permission to upload them under CC BY 4.0 (or whether they could upload the image/s under a compatible license)
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Science News

Further information:2025 in science
19 November 2025 –
Cambodianconservation groups release twocaptive-bredgreater adjutants into theSiem Pang Wildlife Sanctuary for the first time, fitting them withGPS trackers as part of efforts to restore the species' wild population.(Reuters)
28 October 2025 –
Nigeria'sSenate passes the Endangered Species Conservation and Protection Bill, introducing fines of up to12 million (US$8,250) and prison sentences of up to 10 years forwildlife smuggling and strengthening enforcement against illegaltrade in ivory,pangolin scales, and other endangered species.(Reuters)
13 October 2025 –Tipping points in the climate system,Environmental issues with coral reefs
Scientists at theUniversity of Exeter inEngland report large-scale die-off ofcoral reefs, the first major tipping point in large changes in theclimate system.(The Guardian)(Nature)
8 October 2025 –2025 Nobel Prizes
Susumu Kitagawa,Richard Robson, andOmar Yaghi are jointly awarded this year'sNobel Prize in Chemistry for their work onmetal–organic frameworks.(BBC News)
7 October 2025 –2025 Nobel Prizes,Nobel Prize in Physics
John Clarke,Michel Devoret, andJohn M. Martinis are jointly awarded this year's Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery ofmacroscopicquantum mechanical tunnelling andenergy quantization in an electric circuit.(Euronews)
23 September 2025 –
Scientists inArgentina identify a newmegaraptoran species,Joaquinraptor casali, from fossils inPatagonia, providing one of the most complete skeletons of its group.(AP)

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