Historically, many of the individualsciences, such asphysics andpsychology, formed part of philosophy. However, they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term. Influential traditions in thehistory of philosophy includeWestern,Arabic–Persian,Indian, andChinese philosophy. Western philosophy originated inAncient Greece and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields. A central topic in Arabic–Persian philosophy is the relation between reason andrevelation. Indian philosophy combines thespiritual problem of how to reachenlightenment with the exploration of the nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge. Chinese philosophy focuses principally on practical issues about right social conduct, government, andself-cultivation.
In this essay, Wollstonecraft responds to those educational and political theorists of the eighteenth century who did not believe women should receive a rational education. She argues that women ought to have an education commensurate with their position in society, claiming that women are essential to the nation because they educate its children and because they could be "companions" to their husbands, rather than mere wives. Instead of viewing women as ornaments to society or property to be traded in marriage, Wollstonecraft maintains that they are human beings deserving of the same fundamental rights as men. (Full article...)
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Title page from the first English edition of Part I
The Age of Reason; Being an Investigation of True and Fabulous Theology is a work by English and American political activistThomas Paine, arguing for the philosophical position ofdeism. It follows in the tradition of 18th-century British deism, and challenges institutionalized religion and the legitimacy of theBible. It was published in three parts in 1794, 1795, and 1807.
It was a best-seller in the United States, where it caused a deisticrevival. British audiences, fearing increasedpolitical radicalism as a result of theFrench Revolution, received it with more hostility.The Age of Reason presents common deistic arguments; for example, it highlights what Paine saw as corruption of theChristian Church and criticizes its efforts to acquire political power. Paine advocates reason in the place ofrevelation, leading him to rejectmiracles and to view the Bible as an ordinary piece of literature, rather than a divinely-inspired text. InThe Age of Reason, he promotesnatural religion and argues for the existence of a creator god. (Full article...)
Zhang Heng began his career as a minor civil servant inNanyang. Eventually, he became Chief Astronomer, Prefect of the Majors for Official Carriages, and then Palace Attendant at the imperial court. His uncompromising stance on historical and calendrical issues led to his becoming a controversial figure, preventing him from rising to the status of Grand Historian. His political rivalry with the palaceeunuchs during the reign ofEmperor Shun (r. 125–144) led to his decision to retire from the central court to serve as an administrator ofHejian Kingdom in present-dayHebei. Zhang returned home to Nanyang for a short time, before being recalled to serve in the capital once more in 138. He died there a year later, in 139. (Full article...)
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Theproblem of religious language considers whether it is possible to talk aboutGod meaningfully if the traditional conceptions of God as being incorporeal, infinite, and timeless, are accepted. Because these traditional conceptions of God make it difficult to describe God, religious language has the potential to be meaningless. Theories of religious language either attempt to demonstrate that such language is meaningless, or attempt to show how religious language can still be meaningful.
Often, religious language has been explained asvia negativa, analogy, symbolism, or myth, each of which describes a way of talking about God in human terms. Thevia negativa is a way of referring to God according to what God is not; analogy uses human qualities as standards against which to compare divine qualities; symbolism is used non-literally to describe otherwiseineffable experiences; and a mythological interpretation of religion attempts to reveal fundamental truths behind religious stories. Alternative explanations of religious language cast it as having political, performative, or imperative functions. (Full article...)
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Sir Bernard Arthur Owen WilliamsFBA (21 September 1929 – 10 June 2003) was an Englishmoral philosopher. His publications includeProblems of the Self (1973),Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy (1985),Shame and Necessity (1993), andTruth and Truthfulness (2002). He was knighted in 1999.
Wollstonecraft'sphilosophical andgothic novel revolves around the story ofa woman imprisoned in an insane asylum by her husband. It focuses on the societal rather than the individual "wrongs of woman" and criticizes what Wollstonecraft viewed as thepatriarchal institution of marriage in eighteenth-century Britain and the legal system that protected it. However, the heroine's inability to relinquish her romantic fantasies also reveals women's collusion in their oppression through false and damagingsentimentalism. The novel pioneered the celebration offemale sexuality and cross-class identification between women. Such themes, coupled with the publication of Godwin's scandalousMemoirs of Wollstonecraft's life, made the novel unpopular at the time it was published. (Full article...)
Wallace did extensive fieldwork, starting in theAmazon River basin. He then did fieldwork in theMalay Archipelago, where he identified the faunal divide now termed theWallace Line, which separates the Indonesian archipelago into two distinct parts: a western portion in which the animals are largely of Asian origin, and an eastern portion where the fauna reflectAustralasia. He was considered the 19th century's leading expert on the geographical distribution of animal species, and is sometimes called the "father ofbiogeography", or more specifically ofzoogeography. (Full article...)
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The title-page of the 1759 edition published by Cramer in Geneva, which reads, "Candide, or Optimism, translated from the German of Dr. Ralph."
Candide, ou l'Optimisme (/kɒnˈdiːd/kon-DEED,French:[kɑ̃did]ⓘ) is a Frenchsatire written byVoltaire, aphilosopher of theAge of Enlightenment, first published in 1759. Thenovella has been widely translated, with English versions titledCandide: or, All for the Best (1759);Candide: or, The Optimist (1762); andCandide: Optimism (1947). A young man, Candide, lives a sheltered life in anEdenicparadise, being indoctrinated withLeibnizian optimism by his mentor, Professor Pangloss. This lifestyle is abruptly ended, followed by Candide's slow and painful disillusionment as he witnesses and experiences great hardships in the world. Voltaire concludesCandide with, if not rejecting Leibnizian optimism outright, advocating a deeply practical precept, "we must cultivate our garden", in lieu of the Leibnizian mantra of Pangloss, "all is for the best" in the "best of all possible worlds".
Candide is characterized by its tone as well as its erratic, fantastical, and fast-moving plot. Apicaresque novel with a story akin to a seriousbildungsroman, it parodies many adventure and romance clichés, in a tone that is bitter and matter-of-fact. The events discussed are often based on historical happenings. As philosophers of Voltaire's day contended with theproblem of evil, so does Candide, albeit more directly and humorously. Voltaire ridicules religion, theologians, governments, armies, philosophies, and philosophers. ThroughCandide, he assaultsLeibniz and his optimism. (Full article...)
Born and raised inAlbany, New York, Hand majored in philosophy atHarvard College and graduated with honors fromHarvard Law School. After a relatively undistinguished career as a lawyer in Albany and New York City, he was appointed at the age of 37 as aManhattan federal district judge in 1909. The profession suited his detached and open-minded temperament, and his decisions soon won him a reputation for craftsmanship and authority. Between 1909 and 1914, under the influence ofHerbert Croly's social theories, Hand supportedNew Nationalism. He ran unsuccessfully as theProgressive Party's candidate forchief judge of theNew York Court of Appeals in 1913, but withdrew from active politics shortly afterwards. In 1924, PresidentCalvin Coolidge elevated Hand to the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, which he went on to lead as the senior circuit judge (later retitled chief judge) from 1939 until his semi-retirement in 1951. Scholars have recognized the Second Circuit under Hand as one of the finest appeals courts in American history. Friends and admirers often lobbied for Hand's promotion to the Supreme Court, but circumstances and his political past conspired against his appointment. (Full article...)
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Ion Heliade Rădulescu orIon Heliade (also known asEliade orEliade Rădulescu;Romanian pronunciation:[ˈi.on(h)eliˈaderəduˈlesku]; 6 January 1802 – 27 April 1872) was aWallachian, laterRomanian academic,Romantic andClassicist poet, essayist, memoirist, short story writer, newspaper editor and politician. A prolific translator of foreign literature intoRomanian, he was also the author of books onlinguistics and history. For much of his life, Heliade Rădulescu was a teacher atSaint Sava College inBucharest, which he helped reopen. He was a founding member and first president of theRomanian Academy.
Heliade Rădulescu is considered one of the foremost champions ofRomanian culture from the first half of the 19th century, having first risen to prominence through his association withGheorghe Lazăr and his support of Lazăr's drive for discontinuing education inGreek. Over the following decades, he had a major role in shaping the modern Romanian language, but caused controversy when he advocated the massive introduction ofItalianneologisms into theRomanian lexis. ARomantic nationalist landowner siding with moderateliberals, Heliade was among the leaders of the1848 Wallachian revolution, after which he was forced to spend several years in exile. Adopting an original form of conservatism, which emphasized the role of the aristocraticboyars inRomanian history, he was rewarded for supporting theOttoman Empire and clashed with theradical wing of the 1848 revolutionaries. (Full article...)
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Athonite FrescoIcon of Saint Maximos the Confessor
In his early life, Maximus was a civil servant, and an aide to theByzantine EmperorHeraclius. He gave up this life in the political sphere to enter the monastic life. Maximus had studied diverse schools of philosophy, and certainly what was common for his time, the Platonic dialogues, the works of Aristotle, and numerous later Platonic commentators on Aristotle and Plato, likePlotinus,Porphyry,Iamblichus, andProclus. When one of his friends began espousing theChristological position known asMonothelitism, Maximus was drawn into the controversy, in which he supported an interpretation of theChalcedonian formula on the basis of which it was asserted thatJesus had both a human and a divinewill. Maximus isvenerated in both theCatholic andEastern Orthodox Churches. He was eventually persecuted for his Christological positions; following a trial, his tongue and right hand were mutilated. (Full article...)
It has been discussed in the context ofontology,existentialism, and skepticism; it has also been used in Christian religious education classes to initiate discussion about angels, science, and faith. (Full article...)
Rand's writing emphasizes the philosophic concepts of objective reality,reason,rational egoism, andlaissez-faire capitalism, while attacking what she saw as the irrationality and immorality ofaltruism,collectivism, andcommunism. She believed that people must choose their values and actions by reason; that the individual has a right to exist for his or her own sake, neither sacrificing self to others nor others to self; and that no one has the right to take what belongs to others by physical force or fraud, or impose their moral code on others by physical force. Her politics have been described asminarchism andlibertarianism, though she never used the first term and detested the second.
Descriptive ethics deal with what the population believes to be right and wrong, while normative ethics deal with what the populationshould believe to be right and wrong.
Moreover, because it examines standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions, normative ethics is distinct frommeta-ethics, which studies the nature of moral statements, and fromapplied ethics, which places normative rules in practical contexts.
In its judgment, the ICJ adopted the ICTY's conclusion fromRadislav Krstić's conviction and concluded what happened in and aroundSrebrenica was done by members of theArmy of Republika Srpska (VRS) "with the specific intent to destroy in part the group of the Muslims of Bosnia and Herzegovina as such, which constitute acts of genocide committed". The two international courts have ruled differently only concerning direct responsibility for acts of genocide in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The ICJ, in a proceeding of theBosnian genocide case that was brought by Bosnia and Herzegovina againstSerbia and Montenegro, has made rulings to the extent that Serbia was not directly responsible for the perpetration of genocide but was responsible under "customary international law" for violating the obligation to "prevent and punish the crime of genocide". Other international bodies, such as theEuropean Court of Human Rights and theUnited Nations General Assembly, have also passed resolutions acknowledging genocide occurred in Bosnia. German courts have made convictions based upon a more expansive interpretation of genocide than that used by international courts. (Full article...)
Statue of an unknown Cynic philosopher from theCapitoline Museums inRome. This statue is a Roman-era copy of an earlier Greek statue from the third century BC. The scroll in his right hand is an 18th-century restoration.
The first philosopher to outline these themes wasAntisthenes, who had been a pupil ofSocrates in the late 400s BC. He was followed byDiogenes, who lived in a ceramic jar on the streets ofAthens. Diogenes took Cynicism to its logical extremes with his famous public demonstrations of non-conformity, coming to be seen as the archetypal Cynic philosopher. He was followed byCrates of Thebes, who gave away a large fortune so he could live a life of Cynic poverty in Athens. (Full article...)
TheIranian Enlightenment (Persian:روشنگری ایرانی), sometimes called thefirst generation of intellectual movements in Iran (Persian:نسل اول جنبش های روشنفکری در ایران), brought new ideas into traditional Iranian society from the mid-nineteenth to the early twentieth century. During the rule of theQajar dynasty, and especially after the defeat of Iranin its war with theRussian Empire, cultural exchanges led to the formation of new ideas among the educated class of Iran.The establishment ofDar ul-Fonun, the first modern university in Iran and the arrival of foreign professors, caused the thoughts ofEuropean thinkers to enter Iran, followed by the first signs of enlightenment and intellectual movements in Iran.
During this period, intellectual groups were formed insecret societies and secret associations. These secret societies included Mirza Malkam Khan'sFaramosh Khaneh (based onMasonic lodges),Anjoman-e Okhovat,Society of Humanity andMokhadarat Vatan Association. These groups spread their ideas by distributing leaflets and newspapers. These secret societies stressed the need to reform the land and administrative system and reduce the role of the clergy in society, as well as to limit the rulers within the framework of the law. (Full article...)
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According to different scholars, thehistory of anarchism either goes back to ancient and prehistoricideologies andsocial structures, or begins in the 19th century as a formal movement. As scholars and anarchist philosophers have held a range of views onwhat anarchism means, it is difficult to outline its history unambiguously. Some feel anarchism is a distinct, well-defined movement stemming from 19th-centuryclass conflict, while others identify anarchist traits long before the earliest civilisations existed.
Prehistoric society existed without formalhierarchies, which some anthropologists have described as similar toanarchism. The first traces of formal anarchist thought can be found inancient Greece andChina, where numerous philosophers questioned the necessity of thestate and declared the moral right of the individual to live free from coercion. During theMiddle Ages, somereligious sects espoused libertarian thought, and theAge of Enlightenment, and the attendant rise ofrationalism andscience, signalled the birth of the modern anarchist movement. (Full article...)
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Header of the first Russian edition, published August 11, 1917
Golos Truda (Russian:Голос Труда,lit. 'The Voice of Labour') was aRussian-languageanarchist newspaper. Founded by working-class Russian expatriates inNew York City in 1911,Golos Truda shifted toPetrograd during theRussian Revolution in 1917, when its editors took advantage of the general amnesty and right of return for political dissidents. There, the paper integrated itself into the anarchist labour movement, pronounced the necessity of asocial revolution of and by the workers, and situated itself in opposition to the myriad of other left-wing movements.
The rise to power of theBolsheviks marked the turning point for the newspaper however, as the new government enacted increasingly repressive measures against the publication of dissident literature and againstanarchist agitation in general, and after a few years of low-profile publishing, theGolos Trudacollective was finally expunged by theStalinist regime in 1929. (Full article...)
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TheTerri Schiavo case was a series of court and legislative actions in the United States from 1998 to 2005, regarding the care ofTheresa Marie Schiavo (néeSchindler) (/ˈʃaɪvoʊ/; December 3, 1963 – March 31, 2005), a woman in an irreversiblepermanent vegetative state. Schiavo's husband and legal guardian argued that Schiavo would not have wanted prolonged artificial life support without the prospect of recovery, and, in 1998, he elected to remove herfeeding tube. Schiavo's parents disputed her husband's assertions and challenged Schiavo's medical diagnosis, arguing in favor of continuing artificial nutrition and hydration. The highly publicized and prolonged series of legal challenges presented by her parents, which ultimately involved state and federal politicians up to the level ofGeorge W. Bush, the thenU.S. president, caused a seven-year delay (until 2005) before Schiavo's feeding tube was ultimately removed.
On February 25, 1990, at age 26, Schiavo went intocardiac arrest at her home inSt. Petersburg, Florida. She was resuscitated, but had severebrain damage due tooxygen deprivation and was leftcomatose. After two and a half months without improvement, her diagnosis was changed to that of a persistent vegetative state. For the next two years, doctors attempted occupational therapy, speech therapy, physical therapy and other experimental therapy, hoping to return her to a state of awareness, without success. In 1998, Schiavo's husband Michael Schiavo petitioned theSixth Circuit Court of Florida to remove her feeding tube pursuant to Florida law. He was opposed by Terri's parents, Robert and Mary Schindler. The court determined that Schiavo would not have wished to continue life-prolonging measures, and on April 24, 2001, her feeding tube was removed for the first time, only to be reinserted several days later. On February 25, 2005, a Pinellas County judge again ordered the removal of Terri Schiavo's feeding tube. Several appeals and federal government intervention followed, which included Bush returning toWashington, D.C., to sign legislation moving the case to the federal courts. After appeals through the federal court system that upheld the original decision to remove the feeding tube, staff at thePinellas Park hospice facility disconnected the feeding tube on March 18, 2005, and Schiavo died on March 31, 2005. (Full article...)
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Germans protesting theWehrmacht exhibition in 2002. The touring exhibition, organised by theHamburg Institute for Social Research, began to erode the myth for the German public in the 1990s. The signs state "Glory and honour to the German soldier!" Themyth of the cleanWehrmacht (German:Mythos der sauberen Wehrmacht) is thenegationist notion that the regular German armed forces (theWehrmacht) were not involved inthe Holocaust or otherwar crimes duringWorld War II. The myth, heavily promoted byWest German authors and military personnel after World War II, completely denies the culpability of the German military command in the planning and perpetration of war crimes. Even where war crimes and the waging of an extermination campaign, particularly in theSoviet Union – the populace of which was viewed by the Nazis as "sub-humans" ruled by "Jewish Bolshevik" conspirators – have been acknowledged, they are ascribed to the "Party soldiers corps", theSchutzstaffel (SS), but not the regular German military.
The myth began during the war, being promoted in theWehrmacht's official propaganda and by soldiers of all ranks seeking to portray their institution in the best possible light; as prospects for victory faded, these soldiers began to portray themselves as victims. After Germany's defeat, the verdict of theInternational Military Tribunal (1945–1946), which released many of the accused, was misrepresented as exonerating theWehrmacht.Franz Halder and otherWehrmacht leaders signed the Generals' memorandum entitled "The German Army from 1920 to 1945", which laid out the key elements of the myth, attempting to exculpate theWehrmacht from war crimes. (Full article...)
Reich's work on character contributed to the development ofAnna Freud'sThe Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence (1936), and his idea of muscular armour—the expression of the personality in the way the body moves—shaped innovations such asbody psychotherapy,Gestalt therapy,bioenergetic analysis andprimal therapy. His writing influenced generations of intellectuals; he coined the phrase "thesexual revolution" and according to one historian acted as its midwife. During the1968 student uprisings in Paris and Berlin, students scrawled his name on walls and threw copies ofThe Mass Psychology of Fascism at police. (Full article...)
TheI Ching orYijing (Chinese:易經Mandarin pronunciation:[î tɕíŋ]ⓘ), usually translatedBook of Changes orClassic of Changes, is an ancient Chinesedivination text that is among the oldest of theChinese classics. TheI Ching was originally adivination manual in theWestern Zhou period (1000–750 BCE). Over the course of theWarring States and early imperial periods (500–200 BCE), it transformed into acosmological text with a series of philosophical commentaries known as theTen Wings. After becoming part of the ChineseFive Classics in the 2nd century BCE, theI Ching was the basis for divination practice for centuries across the Far East and was the subject of scholarly commentary. Between the 18th and 20th centuries, it took on an influential role in Western understanding of East Asian philosophical thought.[1] As a divination text, theI Ching is used for a Chinese form ofcleromancy known asI Ching divination in which bundles ofyarrow stalks are manipulated to produce sets of six apparently random numbers ranging from 6 to 9. Each of the 64 possible sets corresponds to ahexagram, which can be looked up in theI Ching. The hexagrams are arranged in an order known as theKing Wen sequence. The interpretation of the readings found in theI Ching has been discussed and debated over the centuries. Many commentators have used the book symbolically, often to provide guidance for moral decision-making, as informed byConfucianism,Taoism andBuddhism. The hexagrams themselves have often acquired cosmological significance and been paralleled with many other traditional names for the processes of change such asyin and yang andWuxing. (Full article...)
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Carl Linnaeus (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known afterennoblement in 1761 asCarl von Linné, was a Swedishbiologist andphysician who formalisedbinomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of moderntaxonomy". Many of his writings were in Latin; his name is rendered in Latin asCarolus Linnæus and, after his 1761 ennoblement, asCarolus a Linné.
Linnaeus was the son of acurate and was born inRåshult, in the countryside ofSmåland, southernSweden. He received most of his higher education atUppsala University and began giving lectures in botany there in 1730. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published the first edition of hisSystema Naturae in the Netherlands. He then returned to Sweden where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on several journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants and animals. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, while publishing several volumes. By the time of his death in 1778, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe. (Full article...)
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Howard AdelmanCM (January 7, 1938 – July 23, 2023) was a Canadian philosopher and university professor. He retired as Professor Emeritus of Philosophy atYork University in 2003. Adelman was one of the founders ofRochdale College, as well as the founder and director of York's Centre for Refugee Studies. He was editor ofRefuge for ten years, and since his retirement he has received several honorary university and governmental appointments in Canada and abroad. Adelman was the recipient of numerous awards and grants, and presented the inaugural lecture in a series named in his honor at York University in 2008. (Full article...)
Image 13The BuddhistNalanda university and monastery was a major center of learning in India from the 5th century CE to c. 1200. (fromEastern philosophy)
(upper)PIRRHO • HELIENSIS • PLISTARCHI • FILIVS translation (from Latin): Pyrrho • Greek • Son of Plistarchus
(middle)OPORTERE • SAPIENTEM HANC ILLIVS IMITARI SECVRITATEMtranslation (from Latin): It is right wisdom then that all imitate this security (Pyrrho pointing at a peaceful pig munching his food)
(lower)Whoever wants to apply the real wisdom, shall not mindtrepidation and misery
Image 4The center third ofEducation (1890), a stained glass window byLouis Comfort Tiffany and Tiffany Studios, located in Linsly-Chittenden Hall atYale University. It depictsScience (personified by Devotion, Labor, Truth, Research and Intuition) andReligion (personified by Purity, Faith, Hope, Reverence and Inspiration) in harmony, presided over by the central personification of "Light·Love·Life".
Image 5Leo Tolstoy in 1897. Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy was a Russian writer who is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time.
Image 17Oscar Wilde reclining withPoems, byNapoleon Sarony, in New York in 1882. Wilde often liked to appear idle, though in fact he worked hard; by the late 1880s he was a father, an editor, and a writer.
Philosophy ponders the most fundamental questions humankind has been able to ask. These are increasingly numerous and over time they have been arranged into the overlappingbranches of the philosophy tree:
Aesthetics: What is art? What is beauty? Is there a standard of taste? Is art meaningful? If so, what does it mean? What is good art? Is art for the purpose of an end, or is "art for art's sake?" What connects us to art? How does art affect us? Is some art unethical? Can art corrupt or elevate societies?
Epistemology: What are the nature and limits of knowledge? What is more fundamental to human existence, knowing (epistemology) or being (ontology)? How do we come to know what we know? What are the limits and scope of knowledge? How can we know that there are other minds (if we can)? How can we know that there is an external world (if we can)? How can we prove our answers? What is a true statement?
Ethics: Is there a difference between ethically right and wrong actions (or values, or institutions)? If so, what is that difference? Which actions are right, and which wrong? Do divine commands make right acts right, or is their rightness based on something else? Are there standards of rightness that are absolute, or are all such standards relative to particular cultures? How should I live? What is happiness?
Logic: What makes a good argument? How can I think critically about complicated arguments? What makes for good thinking? When can I say that something just does not make sense? Where is the origin of logic?
Metaphysics: What sorts of things exist? What is the nature of those things? Do some things exist independently of our perception? What is the nature of space and time? What is the relationship of the mind to the body? What is it to be a person? What is it to be conscious? Do gods exist?
Political philosophy: Are political institutions and their exercise of power justified? What is justice? Is there a 'proper' role and scope of government? Is democracy the best form of governance? Is governance ethically justifiable? Should a state be allowed? Should a state be able to promote the norms and values of a certain moral or religious doctrine? Are states allowed to go to war? Do states have duties against inhabitants of other states?
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![Image 9Adam Smith (baptised 16 June 1723 – died 17 July 1790 [OS: 5 June 1723 – 17 July 1790]) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economics. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, Smith is the author of The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Smith is widely cited as the father of modern economics.](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aKirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png)
