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The Nuclear Technology Portal

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Introduction

This symbol of radioactivity is internationally recognized.

Nuclear technology is technology that involves thenuclear reactions ofatomic nuclei. Among the notable nuclear technologies arenuclear reactors,nuclear medicine andnuclear weapons. It is also used, among other things, insmoke detectors andgun sights. (Full article...)
Nuclear power is the use ofnuclear reactions to produceelectricity. Nuclear power can be obtained fromnuclear fission,nuclear decay andnuclear fusion reactions. Presently, the vast majority of electricity from nuclear power is produced by nuclearfission ofuranium andplutonium innuclear power plants. Nucleardecay processes are used in niche applications such asradioisotope thermoelectric generators in some space probes such asVoyager 2. Reactors producing controlledfusion power have been operated since 1958 but have yet to generate net power and are not expected to be commercially available in the near future. (Full article...)
Anuclear weapon is anexplosive device that derives its destructive force fromnuclear reactions, eithernuclear fission (fission or atomic bomb) or a combination of fission andnuclear fusion reactions (thermonuclear weapon), producing anuclear explosion. Both bomb types release large quantities ofenergy from relatively small amounts ofmatter. (Full article...)

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The following are images from various nuclear technology-related articles on Wikipedia.

Image 1Edward Teller, often referred to as the "father of the hydrogen bomb" (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 2Anti-nuclear weapons protest march in Oxford, 1980 (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 3TheCANDU Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant (fromNuclear reactor)
Image 4Anti-nuclear protest nearnuclear waste disposal centre atGorleben in northern Germany (fromNuclear power)
Image 5A schematic nuclear fission chain reaction. 1. A uranium-235 atom absorbs a neutron and fissions into two new atoms (fission fragments), releasing three new neutrons and some binding energy. 2. One of those neutrons is absorbed by an atom ofuranium-238 and does not continue the reaction. Another neutron is simply lost and does not collide with anything, also not continuing the reaction. However, the one neutron does collide with an atom of uranium-235, which then fissions and releases two neutrons and some binding energy. 3. Both of those neutrons collide with uranium-235 atoms, each of which fissions and releases between one and three neutrons, which can then continue the reaction. (fromNuclear fission)
Image 6A demilitarized,commercial launch of the RussianStrategic Rocket Forces R-36ICBM; also known by the NATO reporting name:SS-18 Satan. Upon its first fielding in the late 1960s, the SS-18 remains the single highestthrow weight missile delivery system ever built. (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 7Themushroom cloud of theatomic bomb dropped onNagasaki, Japan, on 9 August 1945 rose over 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) above the bomb'shypocenter. An estimated 39,000 people were killed by the atomic bomb, of whom 23,145–28,113 were Japanese factory workers, 2,000 were Korean slave laborers, and 150 were Japanese combatants. (fromNuclear fission)
Image 8Over 2,000 nuclear explosions have been conducted in over a dozen different sites around the world. Red Russia/Soviet Union, blue France, light blue United States, violet Britain, yellow China, orange India, brown Pakistan, green North Korea and light green (territories exposed to nuclear bombs). The black dot indicates the location of theVela incident. (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 9TheLeibstadt Nuclear Power Plant in Switzerland (fromNuclear power)
Image 10Fission product yields by mass forthermal neutron fission ofuranium-235,plutonium-239, a combination of the two typical of current nuclear power reactors, anduranium-233, used in thethorium cycle (fromNuclear fission)
Image 11Most waste packaging, small-scale experimental fuel recycling chemistry andradiopharmaceutical refinement is conducted within remote-handledhot cells. (fromNuclear power)
Image 12The nuclear fuel cycle begins when uranium is mined, enriched, and manufactured into nuclear fuel (1), which is delivered to anuclear power plant. After use, the spent fuel is delivered to a reprocessing plant (2) or to a final repository (3). Innuclear reprocessing, 95% of spent fuel can potentially be recycled to be returned to use in a power plant (4). (fromNuclear power)
Image 13In thermal nuclear reactors (LWRs in specific), the coolant acts as a moderator that must slow the neutrons before they can be efficiently absorbed by the fuel. (fromNuclear reactor)
Image 14TheChicago Pile, the first artificial nuclear reactor, built in secrecy at the University of Chicago in 1942 during World War II as part of the US'sManhattan Project (fromNuclear reactor)
Image 15A photograph ofSumiteru Taniguchi's back injuries taken in January 1946 by a US Marine photographer (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 16An example of an induced nuclear fission event. A neutron is absorbed by the nucleus of a uranium-235 atom, which in turn splits into fast-moving lighter elements (fission products) and free neutrons. Though both reactors andnuclear weapons rely on nuclear chain reactions, the rate of reactions in a reactor is much slower than in a bomb. (fromNuclear reactor)
$Image 17Reactor decay heat as a fraction of full power after the reactor shutdown, using two different correlations. To remove the decay heat, reactors need cooling after the shutdown of the fission reactions. A loss of the ability to remove decay heat caused the Fukushima accident. (from Nuclear power)$
Image 17Reactordecay heat as a fraction of full power after the reactor shutdown, using two different correlations. To remove the decay heat, reactors need cooling after the shutdown of the fission reactions. A loss of the ability to remove decay heat caused theFukushima accident. (fromNuclear power)
Image 18Lise Meitner andOtto Hahn in their laboratory (fromNuclear reactor)
Image 19Proportions of the isotopesuranium-238 (blue) and uranium-235 (red) found in natural uranium and inenriched uranium for different applications. Light water reactors use 3–5% enriched uranium, whileCANDU reactors work with natural uranium. (fromNuclear power)
Image 20The number of nuclear warheads by country in 2024, based on an estimation by theFederation of American Scientists (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 21A visual representation of an induced nuclear fission event where a slow-moving neutron is absorbed by the nucleus of a uranium-235 atom, which fissions into two fast-moving lighter elements (fission products) and additional neutrons. Most of the energy released is in the form of the kinetic velocities of the fission products and the neutrons. (fromNuclear fission)
Image 22The first light bulbs ever lit by electricity generated by nuclear power atEBR-1 atArgonne National Laboratory-West (now theIdaho National Laboratory), December 20, 1951. (fromNuclear power)
Image 23TheIgnalina Nuclear Power Plant – a RBMK type (closed 2009) (fromNuclear reactor)
Image 24The launching ceremony ofUSS Nautilus January 1954. In 1958 it would become the first vessel to reach theNorth Pole. (fromNuclear power)
Image 25A comparison oflevelized cost of energy (LCOE) over time for nuclear power and other sources. While wind turbines and solar panels can be mass-produced and thus enjoylearning curve effects, nuclear are almost always one-of-a-kind projects due to the limited number of reactors being built. The source of this chart,Our World in Data notes that the costs presented here is the globalaverage, and these costs were driven up by 2 projects in the United States. The organization recognises that themedian cost of the most exported and produced nuclear energy facility in the 2010s the South KoreanAPR1400, remained "constant", including in export. (fromNuclear power)
Image 26Activity of spent UOx fuel in comparison to the activity of naturaluranium ore over time (fromNuclear power)
Image 27Typical composition ofuranium dioxide fuel before and after approximately three years in theonce-through nuclear fuel cycle of aLWR (fromNuclear power)
Image 28TheTorness nuclear power station – an AGR (fromNuclear reactor)
Image 29Ukrainian workers use equipment provided by the USDefense Threat Reduction Agency to dismantle a Soviet-era missile silo. After the end of the Cold War, Ukraine and the other non-Russian, post-Soviet republics relinquished Soviet nuclear stockpiles to Russia. (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 30TheIkata Nuclear Power Plant, apressurized water reactor that cools by using a secondary coolantheat exchanger with a large body of water, an alternative cooling approach to largecooling towers (fromNuclear power)
Image 31Overhead view of the core of the RA-3 Research and Production Reactor (CNEA,Argentina) (fromNuclear reactor)
Image 32Death rates per unit of electricity production for different energy sources (fromNuclear power)
Image 33AMinuteman III ICBM test launch fromVandenberg Air Force Base, United States.MIRVed land-basedICBMs are considered destabilizing because they tend to put a premium onstriking first. (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 34TheMagnox Sizewell A nuclear power station (fromNuclear reactor)
Image 35Nuclear waste flasks generated by the United States during the Cold War are stored underground at theWaste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) inNew Mexico. The facility is seen as a potential demonstration for storing spent fuel from civilian reactors. (fromNuclear power)
Image 36Schematic of theITER tokamak under construction in France (fromNuclear power)
Image 37Primary coolant system showingreactor pressure vessel (red),steam generators (purple),pressurizer (blue), and pumps (green) in the three coolant loopHualong One pressurized water reactor design (fromNuclear reactor)
Image 38Dry cask storage vessels storing spent nuclear fuel assemblies (fromNuclear power)
Image 39The basics of theTeller–Ulam design for a hydrogen bomb: a fission bomb uses radiation to compress and heat a separate section of fusion fuel. (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 40Three of the reactors atFukushima I overheated, causing the coolant water todissociate and led to the hydrogen explosions. This along with fuelmeltdowns released large amounts ofradioactive material into the air. (fromNuclear reactor)
Image 41The status of nuclear power globally (click for legend) (fromNuclear power)
Image 42Animation of aCoulomb explosion in the case of a cluster of positively charged nuclei, akin to a cluster of fission fragments.Hue level of color is proportional to (larger) nuclei charge. Electrons (smaller) on this time-scale are seen only stroboscopically and the hue level is their kinetic energy. (fromNuclear fission)
Image 43Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of electricity supply technologies, median values calculated byIPCC (fromNuclear power)
Image 44Thecooling towers of thePhilippsburg Nuclear Power Plant in Germany (fromNuclear fission)
Image 45The two basicfission weapon designs (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 46The nuclear fission display at theDeutsches Museum inMunich. The table and instruments are originals, but would not have been together in the same room. (fromNuclear fission)
Image 47Themulti-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator (MMRTG), used in several space missions such as theCuriosity Mars rover (fromNuclear power)
Image 48The town ofPripyat abandoned since 1986, with the Chernobyl plant and theChernobyl New Safe Confinement arch in the distance (fromNuclear power)
Image 49The "curve of binding energy": A graph of binding energy per nucleon of common isotopes. (fromNuclear fission)
Image 50UN vote on adoption of theTreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons on July 7, 2017
  Yes
  No
  Did not vote
(fromNuclear weapon)
Image 51Diablo Canyon – a PWR (fromNuclear reactor)
Image 52Following the 2011Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, the world's worstnuclear accident since 1986, 50,000 households were displaced afterradiation leaked into the air, soil and sea. Radiation checks led to bans of some shipments of vegetables and fish. (fromNuclear power)
Image 53This view of downtownLas Vegas shows amushroom cloud in the background. Scenes such as this were typical during the 1950s. From 1951 to 1962 the government conducted 100 atmospheric tests at the nearbyNevada Test Site. (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 54Protest in Bonn against thenuclear arms race between the US/NATO and the Warsaw Pact, 1981 (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 55Mushroom cloud from the explosion ofCastle Bravo, the largest nuclear weapon detonated by the US, in 1954 (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 56Treatment of the interior part of aVVER-1000 reactor frame atAtommash (fromNuclear reactor)
Image 57Nuclear fuel assemblies being inspected before entering apressurized water reactor in the United States (fromNuclear power)
Image 58SovietOTR-21 Tochka missile. Capable of firing a 100-kiloton nuclear warhead a distance of 185 km (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 59Montage of an inert test of a United StatesTrident SLBM (submarine launched ballistic missile), from submerged to theterminal, or re-entry phase, of themultiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 60The stages of binary fission in a liquid drop model. Energy input deforms the nucleus into a fat "cigar" shape, then a "peanut" shape, followed by binary fission as the two lobes exceed the short-rangenuclear force attraction distance, and are then pushed apart and away by their electrical charge. In the liquid drop model, the two fission fragments are predicted to be the same size. The nuclear shell model allows for them to differ in size, as usually experimentally observed. (fromNuclear fission)
Image 61Otto Hahn andLise Meitner in 1912 (fromNuclear fission)
Image 62Olkiluoto 3 under construction in 2009. It was the firstEPR, a modernized PWR design, to start construction. (fromNuclear power)
Image 63TheSuperphénix, closed in 1998, was one of the few FBRs. (fromNuclear reactor)
Image 64Some of theChicago Pile Team, includingEnrico Fermi andLeó Szilárd (fromNuclear reactor)
Image 65NC State's PULSTAR Reactor is a 1 MW pool-typeresearch reactor with 4% enriched, pin-type fuel consisting of UO₂ pellets inzircaloy cladding. (fromNuclear reactor)
Image 66The now decommissioned United States'Peacekeeper missile was anICBM developed to replace theMinuteman missile in the late 1980s. Each missile, like theheavier lift RussianSS-18 Satan, could contain up to ten nuclear warheads (shown in red), each of which could be aimed at a different target. A factor in the development ofMIRVs was to make completemissile defense difficult for an enemy country. (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 67The first nuclear weapons weregravity bombs, such as the "Fat Man" weapon dropped onNagasaki, Japan. They were large and could only be delivered byheavy bomber aircraft (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 68TheUSSR and United States nuclear weapon stockpiles throughout theCold War until 2015, with a precipitous drop in total numbers following the end of the Cold War in 1991. (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 69Demonstration against nuclear testing inLyon, France, in the 1980s (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 70Induced fission reaction. Aneutron is absorbed by auranium-235 nucleus, turning it briefly into an exciteduranium-236 nucleus, with the excitation energy provided by the kinetic energy of the neutron plus theforces that bind the neutron. The uranium-236, in turn, splits into fast-moving lighter elements (fission products) and releases several free neutrons, one or more "promptgamma rays" (not shown) and a (proportionally) large amount of kinetic energy. (fromNuclear fission)
Image 71Scaled-down model ofTOPAZ nuclear reactor (fromNuclear reactor)
Image 72Drawing of the first artificial reactor,Chicago Pile-1 (fromNuclear fission)
Image 73Ballistic missile submarines have been of great strategic importance for the United States, Russia, and other nuclear powers since they entered service in theCold War, as they can hide fromreconnaissance satellites and fire their nuclear weapons with virtual impunity. (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 74TheTrinity test of theManhattan Project was the first detonation of a nuclear weapon, which ledJ. Robert Oppenheimer to recall verses from theHindu scriptureBhagavad Gita: "If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once into the sky, that would be like the splendor of the mighty one "... "I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds". (fromNuclear weapon)
Image 75TheCalder Hall nuclear power station in the United Kingdom, the world's first commercial nuclear power station (fromNuclear power)

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TheSmyth Report (officiallyAtomic Energy for Military Purposes) is the common name of an administrative history written by Americanphysicist Henry DeWolf Smyth about theManhattan Project, theAllied effort to developatomic bombs duringWorld War II. The subtitle of the report isA General Account of the Development of Methods of Using Atomic Energy for Military Purposes. It was released to the media on August 11, 1945 and the public on August 12, 1945, just days after theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9.

Smyth was commissioned to write the report byMajor General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., the director of the Manhattan Project. The Smyth Report was the first official account of the development of the atomic bombs and the basic physical processes behind them. It also served as an indication as to what information wasdeclassified; anything in the Smyth Report could be discussed openly. For this reason, the Smyth Report focused heavily on information, such as basicnuclear physics, which was either already widely known in the scientific community or easily deducible by a competent scientist, and omitted details aboutchemistry,metallurgy, andordnance. According to historian Rebecca Press Schwartz, this would ultimately give a false impression that the Manhattan Project was all about physics.

The Smyth Report sold almost 127,000 copies in its first eight printings, and was onThe New York Times best-seller list from mid-October 1945 until late January 1946. It has been translated into over 40 languages. (Full article...)

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Credit: Federal government of the United States

Castle Bravo nuclear test.

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Did you know?

... that music managerAlan Wills learned about management from his father, who was "in charge of the UK's nuclear early warning system"?
... thatProject Carryall proposed the detonation of 23 nuclear devices in California to build a road?
... that poetPeggy Pond Church became a strong pacifist and a member of theSociety of Friends after theManhattan Project used her home as a place to build nuclear weapons?
... that themountain cottontail is abundant in theHanford Site, a decommissioned nuclear production complex?
... that the Russian and Belarussian military exerciseZapad 2009 involved nuclear-capable ballistic missiles?
... thatProject Ketch proposed the detonation of a 24-kiloton nuclear device in Pennsylvania to create a natural-gas storage reservoir?

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Niels Henrik David Bohr (Danish:[ˈne̝lsˈpoɐ̯ˀ]; 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962) was a Danishtheoretical physicist who made foundational contributions to understandingatomic structure andquantum theory, for which he received theNobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was also aphilosopher and a promoter of scientific research.

Bohr developed theBohr model of theatom, in which he proposed that energy levels ofelectrons are discrete and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around theatomic nucleus but can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle ofcomplementarity: that items could be separately analysed in terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as awave or a stream of particles. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohr's thinking in both science and philosophy.

Bohr founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics at theUniversity of Copenhagen, now known as theNiels Bohr Institute, which opened in 1920. Bohr mentored and collaborated with physicists includingHans Kramers,Oskar Klein,George de Hevesy, andWerner Heisenberg. He predicted the properties of a newzirconium-like element, which was namedhafnium, after the Latin name for Copenhagen, where it was discovered. Later, the synthetic elementbohrium was named after him because of his groundbreaking work on the structure of atoms.

During the 1930s, Bohr helped refugees fromNazism. AfterDenmark was occupied by the Germans, he met with Heisenberg, who had become the head of theGerman nuclear weapon project. In September 1943 word reached Bohr that he was about to be arrested by the Germans, so he fled to Sweden. From there, he was flown to Britain, where he joined the BritishTube Alloys nuclear weapons project, and was part of the British mission to theManhattan Project. After the war, Bohr called for international cooperation on nuclear energy. He was involved with the establishment ofCERN and theResearch Establishment Risø of the Danish Atomic Energy Commission and became the first chairman of theNordic Institute for Theoretical Physics in 1957. (Full article...)

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1 October 2025 –Russo-Ukrainian war: TheUkrainian energy ministry declares an "emergency situation" at theChernobyl Nuclear Power Plant as theNew Safe Confinement structure meant to prevent radioactive material from spreading into the environment experiences a three-hourpower outage due to aRussian drone strike on an energy facility in nearbySlavutych,Kyiv Oblast.(The Kyiv Independent)
27 September 2025 –International sanctions against Iran,Nuclear program of Iran: TheUnited Nations reimposeseconomic and military sanctions onIran afterFrance,Germany, and theUnited Kingdom trigger thesnapback mechanism underSecurity Council Resolution 2231 and theJoint Comprehensive Plan of Action, citing Iran's nuclear escalation and lack of cooperation with theIAEA.(BBC News)(Reuters)

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Related topics

Nuclear technology

Science

Chemistry
Engineering
Physics
Atomic nucleus
Fission
Fusion
Radiation {Cesium 137}
- ionizing
- braking

Imaging	RadBall Scintigraphy Single-photon emission (SPECT) Positron-emission tomography (PET)
Therapy	Fast-neutron Neutron capture therapy of cancer Targeted alpha-particle Proton-beam Tomotherapy Brachytherapy Radiation therapy Radiosurgery Radiopharmacology

Weapons

Topics	Arms race Delivery Design Disarmament Ethics Explosion effects History Proliferation Testing high-altitude underground Warfare Yield TNTe
Lists	Estimated death tolls from attacks States with nuclear weapons Historical stockpiles and tests Tests Tests in the United States WMD treaties Weapon-free zones Weapons

Waste

Products	Actinide Reprocessed uranium Reactor-grade plutonium Minor actinide Activation Fission LLFP Actinide chemistry
Disposal	Fuel cycle High-level (HLW) Low-level (LLW) Repository Reprocessing Spent fuel pool cask Transmutation

Debate

Nuclear reactors

Fission

Moderator

Light water

Aqueous homogeneous
Boiling
Natural fission
Pressurized
- AP1000
- APR-1400
- APR+
- APWR
- ATMEA1
- CAP1400
- CPR-1000
- EPR
- Hualong One
  - ACPR1000
  - ACP1000
- VVER
- RITM-200
- KN-3
- VM
- IPWR-900
- many others
Supercritical (SCWR)

Heavy water
bycoolant

D₂O	Pressurized CANDU CANDU 6 CANDU 9 EC6 AFCR ACR-1000 CVTR IPHWR IPHWR-220 IPHWR-540 IPHWR-700 PHWR KWU MZFR R3 R4 Marviken
H₂O	HWLWR ATR HW BLWR 250 Steam-generating (SGHWR) AHWR
Organic	WR-1
CO₂	HWGCR EL-4 KKN KS 150 Lucens

Graphite
bycoolant

Water (LWGR)

H₂O	AM-1 AMB-X EGP-6 RBMK MKER

Gas

CO₂	Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz (UNGG) Magnox Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
He	GTMHR MHR-T UHTREX VHTR (HTGR) PBR (PBMR) AVR HTR-10 HTR-PM THTR-300 PMR

Molten-salt

Fluorides	Fuji MSR Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) TMSR-500 TMSR-LF1

None
(fast-neutron)

Breeder (FBR) Integral (IFR) Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) OK-550 BM-40A VT-1 Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) Traveling-wave (TWR) Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) Reduced-moderation (RMWR) Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
Generation IV	Sodium (SFR) BN-350 BN-600 BN-800 BN-1200 CFR-600 Phénix Superphénix PFBR FBR-600 CEFR PFR PRISM Lead BREST-300 Helium gas (GFR) Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)

Others

Fusion
byconfinement
Magnetic	Field-reversed configuration Levitated dipole Reversed field pinch Spheromak Stellarator Tokamak
Inertial	Bubble(acoustic) Fusor electrostatic Laser-driven Magnetized-target Z-pinch
Other	Dense plasma focus Migma Muon-catalyzed Polywell Pyroelectric

Category
Commons

v t e Nuclear power by country
GW_e > 10	Canada China France Japan Russia South Korea Ukraine United States
GW_e > 5	Belgium India Spain Sweden United Kingdom
GW_e > 2	Czech Republic Finland Germany Pakistan Slovakia Switzerland Taiwan UAE
GW_e > 1	Argentina Belarus Brazil Bulgaria Hungary Mexico Romania South Africa
GW_e < 1	Armenia Iran Netherlands Slovenia
Planned	Albania Algeria Bangladesh Chile Egypt Ghana Indonesia Israel Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Morocco Myanmar Nigeria North Korea Philippines Poland Saudi Arabia Sri Lanka Thailand Tunisia Turkey Vietnam
Abandoned plans for new plants	Australia Austria Cuba Ireland Libya Lithuania Malaysia Portugal Syria Taiwan Venezuela
Phasing-out	Belgium(delayed) Germany Italy(already) Spain Switzerland(gradually) Taiwan
List of nuclear power stations Nuclear energy policy Nuclear energy policy by country Nuclear accidents Nuclear technology portal

Fusion power, processes and devices

Core topics

Nuclear fusion	Burning plasma Timeline List of experiments List of technologies Commercial Aneutronic

Processes,
methods

Confinement
type

Gravitational	Alpha process Triple-alpha process CNO cycle Helium flash Nova remnants Proton–proton chain Carbon-burning Lithium burning Neon-burning Oxygen-burning Silicon-burning R-process S-process
Magnetic	Field-reversed configuration Levitated dipole Magnetic mirror Bumpy torus Pinch Dense plasma focus Reversed field Theta Zeta Stellarator Tokamak Spherical Spheromak Dynomak Toroidal solenoid
Magneto-inertial	Magnetized liner Magnetized target
Inertial	Bubble (acoustic) Laser-driven Ion-driven
Electrostatic	Fusor Polywell

Other forms

Devices,
experiments

Magnetic
confinement

Tokamak

International	ITER DEMO PROTO
Americas	STOR-M Alcator C-Mod ARC SPARC DIII-D Electric Tokamak LTX NSTX PLT TFTR Pegasus Riggatron SSPX ETE TCABR Novillo [es]
Asia, Oceania	CFETR EAST HT-7 HH70 HL-2A HL-2M SUNIST ADITYA SST-1 JT-60 QUEST [ja] GLAST KSTAR TT-1
Europe	JET COMPASS GOLEM [cs] TFR WEST ASDEX Upgrade TEXTOR DTT FTU IGNITOR ISTTOK T-15 TCV MAST-U START STEP

Stellarator

Americas	SCR-1 CNT CTH HIDRA HSX Model C NCSX
Asia, Oceania	H-1NF Heliotron J LHD
Europe	WEGA Wendelstein 7-AS Wendelstein 7-X TJ-II Uragan-2M Uragan-3M [uk]

Levitated dipole

Pinch

Sceptre ZETA Perhapsatron
RFP	RFX MST

Field-reversed
configuration

PFRC
Colliding	C-2U, C-2W–Norman, Copernicus Grande, Venti, Trenta Trisops

Mirror

Magneto-inertial

Inertial
confinement

Laser

Americas	Argus Cyclops Janus LIFE Long path NIF Nike Nova OMEGA Shiva
Asia	GEKKO XII
Europe	HiPER Asterix IV (PALS) LMJ LULI2000 ISKRA Vulcan

Non-laser

v t e Types ofnuclear fusion reactor
byconfinement
Magnetic	Field-reversed configuration Levitated dipole Reversed field pinch Spheromak Stellarator Tokamak
Inertial	Bubble(acoustic) Fusor electrostatic Laser-driven Magnetized-target Z-pinch
Other	Dense plasma focus Migma Muon-catalyzed Polywell Pyroelectric
Nuclear fission reactors List of nuclear reactors Nuclear technology

Types ofnuclear fission reactor

Moderator

Light water

Aqueous homogeneous
Boiling
Natural fission
Pressurized
- AP1000
- APR-1400
- APR+
- APWR
- ATMEA1
- CAP1400
- CPR-1000
- EPR
- Hualong One
  - ACPR1000
  - ACP1000
- VVER
- RITM-200
- KN-3
- VM
- IPWR-900
- many others
Supercritical (SCWR)

Heavy water
bycoolant

D₂O	Pressurized CANDU CANDU 6 CANDU 9 EC6 AFCR ACR-1000 CVTR IPHWR IPHWR-220 IPHWR-540 IPHWR-700 PHWR KWU MZFR R3 R4 Marviken
H₂O	HWLWR ATR HW BLWR 250 Steam-generating (SGHWR) AHWR
Organic	WR-1
CO₂	HWGCR EL-4 KKN KS 150 Lucens

Graphite
bycoolant

Water (LWGR)

H₂O	AM-1 AMB-X EGP-6 RBMK MKER

Gas

CO₂	Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz (UNGG) Magnox Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
He	GTMHR MHR-T UHTREX VHTR (HTGR) PBR (PBMR) AVR HTR-10 HTR-PM THTR-300 PMR

Molten-salt

Fluorides	Fuji MSR Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) TMSR-500 TMSR-LF1

None
(fast-neutron)

Breeder (FBR) Integral (IFR) Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) OK-550 BM-40A VT-1 Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) Traveling-wave (TWR) Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) Reduced-moderation (RMWR) Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
Generation IV	Sodium (SFR) BN-350 BN-600 BN-800 BN-1200 CFR-600 Phénix Superphénix PFBR FBR-600 CEFR PFR PRISM Lead BREST-300 Helium gas (GFR) Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)

Others

Radiation (physics and health)

Main articles

Non-ionizing radiation	Acoustic radiation force Infrared Light Starlight Sunlight Microwave Radio waves Ultraviolet
Ionizing radiation	Radioactive decay Cluster decay Background radiation Alpha particle Beta particle Gamma ray Cosmic ray Neutron radiation Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion Nuclear reactors Nuclear weapons Particle accelerators Radioactive materials X-ray
Earth's energy budget Electromagnetic radiation Synchrotron radiation Thermal radiation Black-body radiation Particle radiation Gravitational radiation Cosmic background radiation Cherenkov radiation Askaryan radiation Bremsstrahlung Unruh radiation Dark radiation Radiation exposure

Radiation
and health

Radiation incidents

See also the categoriesRadiation effects,Radioactivity,Radiobiology, andRadiation protection

v t e Radiation protection
Main articles	Background radiation Dosimetry Health physics Ionizing radiation Internal dosimetry Radioactive contamination Radioactive sources Radiobiology
Measurement quantities and units	Absorbed dose Becquerel Committed dose Computed tomography dose index Counts per minute Effective dose Equivalent dose Gray Mean glandular dose Monitor unit Rad Roentgen Rem Sievert
Instruments and measurement techniques	Airborne radioactive particulate monitoring Dosimeter Geiger counter Ion chamber Scintillation counter Proportional counter Radiation monitoring Semiconductor detector Survey meter Whole-body counting
Protection techniques	Lead shielding Glovebox Potassium iodide Radon mitigation Respirators
Organisations	Euratom HPS (USA) IAEA ICRU ICRP IRPA SRP (UK) UNSCEAR
Regulation	IRR (UK) NRC (USA) ONR (UK) Radiation Protection Convention, 1960
Radiation effects	Acute radiation syndrome Radiation-induced cancer
See also the categoriesMedical physics,Radiation effects,Radioactivity,Radiobiology, andRadiation protection

v t e Radiation poisoning
General	Acute Chronic Accidents Experiments Biological timeline
Conditions	Radiation burn Radiation-induced cancer Radiation-induced cognitive decline Radiation-induced lung injury
Treatments	Dose fractionation Radioresistance Radiation protection Radiation dose reconstruction

v t e Nuclear and radioactive disasters, former facilities, tests and test sites
Lists of disasters and incidents	Crimes involving radioactive substances Criticality accidents and incidents Nuclear meltdown accidents Military nuclear accidents Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents Nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll Nuclear and radiation fatalities by country Nuclear weapons tests China France India North Korea Pakistan South Africa Soviet Union United Kingdom in Australia in the United States United States Sunken nuclear submarines List of orphan source incidents Nuclear power accidents by country
Individual accidents and sites	2022Monticello Nuclear Generating Plant accident 2019Nyonoksa radiation accident 2011Fukushima nuclear accident 2001Instituto Oncológico Nacional#Accident 1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident 1990Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident 1987Goiânia accident 1986Chernobyl disaster Effects Related articles 1985Chazhma Bay nuclear accident 1985–1987Therac-25 accident 1982Andreev Bay nuclear accident 1980Kramatorsk radiological accident 1979Three Mile Island accident andThree Mile Island accident health effects 1969Lucens reactor 1962 Thor missile launch failures at Johnston Atoll underOperation Fishbowl 1962Cuban Missile Crisis 1961K-19 nuclear accident 1961SL-1 nuclear meltdown 1957Kyshtym disaster 1957Windscale fire 1957Operation Plumbbob 1954Totskoye nuclear exercise Bikini Atoll Hanford Site Rocky Flats Plant 1945Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Related topics	International Nuclear Event Scale (INES) Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack Books about nuclear issues Films about nuclear issues Anti-war movement Bikini Atoll Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists History of the anti-nuclear movement International Day against Nuclear Tests Nuclear close calls Nuclear-Free Future Award Nuclear-free zone Nuclear power debate Nuclear power phase-out Nuclear weapons debate Peace activists Peace movement Peace camp Russell–Einstein Manifesto Smiling Sun
Nuclear technology portalCategory