Chagatai Khan (Mongolian:ᠴᠠᠭᠠᠲᠠᠶ;c. 1184 – 1242) was a son ofGenghis Khan, a prominent figure in the earlyMongol Empire, and the firstkhan of theChagatai Khanate. The second son of Genghis's wifeBörte, Chagatai was renowned for his masterful knowledge ofMongol custom and law, which he scrupulously obeyed, and his harsh temperament. Because Genghis felt that he was too inflexible in character, most notably never accepting thelegitimacy of his elder brotherJochi, he excluded Chagatai from succession to the Mongol throne. He was nevertheless a key figure in ensuring the stability of the empire after Genghis's death and during the reign of his younger brotherÖgedei Khan.

Chagatai held military commands alongside his brothers during theMongol conquest of the Jin dynasty in 1211 and theinvasion of the Khwarazmian Empire in 1219. During the latter, he was appointed to a key role in organising logistics in addition to battlefield responsibilities, but was censured after feuding with Jochi during theSiege of Gurganj. After the campaign, Chagatai was granted large tracts of conquered land in Central Asia, which he ruled until his death. He quarrelled with civil officials such asMahmud Yalavach over matters of jurisdiction and advised Ögedei on questions of rulership. Chagatai died shortly after Ögedei in 1242; his descendants ruled his territories as the eponymousChagatai Khanate. (Full article...)

George I (George Louis;German:Georg Ludwig; 28 May 1660 – 11 June 1727) wasKing of Great Britain andIreland from 1 August 1714 and ruler of theElectorate of Hanover within theHoly Roman Empire from 23 January 1698 until his death in 1727. He was the firstBritish monarch of theHouse of Hanover.

Born inHanover toErnest Augustus andSophia of Hanover, George inherited the titles and lands of theDuchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg from his father and uncles. In 1682, he married his cousinSophia Dorothea of Celle, with whom he had two children; he also had three daughters with his mistressMelusine von der Schulenburg. George and Sophia Dorothea divorced in 1694. A succession of European wars expanded George's German domains during his lifetime; he was ratified asprince-elector of Hanover in 1708. (Full article...)

Richard II (6 January 1367 –c. 14 February 1400), also known asRichard of Bordeaux, wasKing of England from 1377 until he was deposed in 1399. He was the son ofEdward, Prince of Wales (later known as the Black Prince), andJoan, Countess of Kent. Richard's father died in 1376, leaving Richard asheir apparent to his grandfather,King Edward III; upon the latter's death, the 10-year-old Richard succeeded to the throne.

During Richard's first years as king, government was in the hands of a series ofregency councils, influenced by Richard's unclesJohn of Gaunt andThomas of Woodstock. England at that time faced various problems, most notably theHundred Years' War. A major challenge of the reign was thePeasants' Revolt in 1381, and the young king played a central part in the brutal suppression of this crisis. Less warlike than either his father or grandfather, he sought to bring an end to the Hundred Years' War. A firm believer in theroyal prerogative, Richard restrained the power of the aristocracy and relied on a privateretinue for military protection instead. In contrast to his grandfather, Richard cultivated a refined atmosphere centred on art and culture at court, in which the king was an elevated figure. (Full article...)

DomPedro II (Pedro de Alcântara João Carlos Leopoldo Salvador Bibiano Francisco Xavier de Paula Leocádio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga; 2 December 1825 – 5 December 1891), nicknamedthe Magnanimous (Portuguese:O Magnânimo), was thesecond and last monarch of theEmpire of Brazil, reigning from 1831 untilhis overthrow in 1889.

Pedro II was born in Rio de Janeiro, the seventh child of Emperor DomPedro I of Brazil and Empress DonaMaria Leopoldina.His father's abrupt abdication and departure to Europe in 1831 left the five-year-old as emperor and led to a lonely childhood and adolescence, obliged to spend his time studying in preparation for rule. His experiences with court intrigues and political disputes during this period greatly affected his later character; he grew into a man with a strong sense of duty and devotion toward his country and his people, yet increasingly resentful of his role as monarch. (Full article...)

Prince George of Denmark and Norway, Duke of Cumberland (Danish:Jørgen; 2 April 1653 – 28 October 1708), was the husband ofAnne, Queen of Great Britain. He was theconsort of the British monarch from Anne's accession on 8 March 1702 until his death in 1708.

The marriage of George and Anne was arranged in the early 1680s with a view to developing an Anglo-Danish alliance to contain Dutch maritime power. As a result, George was disliked by his Dutch brother-in-law,William III, Prince of Orange, who was married to Anne's elder sister,Mary. Anne and Mary's father, the British rulerJames II and VII, was deposed in theGlorious Revolution in 1688, and William and Mary succeeded him as joint monarchs with Anne asheir presumptive. The new monarchs granted George the title ofDuke of Cumberland. (Full article...)

Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon (4 August 1900 – 30 March 2002) wasQueen of the United Kingdom and theDominions of theBritish Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 to 6 February 1952 as the wife ofKing George VI. She was also the lastEmpress of India from 1936 until theBritish Raj was dissolved on 15 August 1947. Afterher husband died, she was officially known asQueen Elizabeth The Queen Mother to avoid confusion with her daughterQueen Elizabeth II.

Born into a family ofBritish nobility, Elizabeth came to prominence in 1923 whenshe married Prince Albert, Duke of York, the second son ofKing George V andQueen Mary. The couple and their daughters, Elizabeth andMargaret, embodied traditional ideas of family and public service. As Duchess of York, Elizabeth undertook a variety of public engagements and became known for her consistently cheerful countenance. (Full article...)

Pari Khan Khanum (Persian:پریخان خانم,romanized: Pariḵān Ḵānom; August 1548 – 12 February 1578) was anIranian princess, daughter of the second Safavidshah,Tahmasp I, and hisCircassian consort,Sultan-Agha Khanum. She was her father's favourite child and allowed to partake in court activities, gradually becoming an influential figure who attracted the attentions of the prominent leaders of theQizilbash tribes.

Pari Khan played a central role in the succession crisis after her father's death in 1576. She thwarted the attempt of her brotherHaydar Mirza and his supporters at securing his ascension and enthroned her favoured candidate and brother, Ismail Mirza, asIsmail II. Although she expected gratitude from her brother, Ismail curtailed her power and put her under house arrest. Pari Khan may have been the mastermind behind his assassination in 1577. She endorsed the enthronement of her elder brotherMohammad Khodabanda, who was almost blind. Pari Khan expected to rule while Mohammad remained a figurehead but his wife,Khayr al-Nisa Begum, emerged as an opponent to Pari Khan and engineered Pari Khan's strangulation at the age of around thirty. (Full article...)

Thekla (Greek:Θέκλα; early 820s or 830s – after 870),Latinized asThecla, was a princess of theAmorian dynasty of theByzantine Empire. The eldest child ofByzantine emperorTheophilos and empressTheodora, she was proclaimedaugusta in the late 830s. After Theophilos's death in 842 and her mother becomingregent for Thekla's younger brother,Michael III, Thekla was associated with the regime as co-empress alongside Theodora and Michael.

Thekla was deposed by Michael III, possibly alongside her mother, in 856 and consigned to aconvent inConstantinople. Some time later, she allegedly returned to imperial affairs and became the mistress of Michael's friend and co-emperorBasil I. After Basil murdered Michael in 867 and took power as the sole emperor, Thekla was neglected as his mistress and she took another lover, John Neatokometes. Once Basil found out about the affair, Thekla fell out of favor, was beaten, and had her property confiscated. (Full article...)

Thefamily of Gediminas is a group of family members ofGediminas,Grand Duke of Lithuania (ca. 1275–1341), who interacted in the 14th century. The family included the siblings, children, and grandchildren of the Grand Duke and played the pivotal role in thehistory of Lithuania for the period as theLithuanian nobility had not yet acquired its influence. Gediminas was also the forefather of theGediminid dynasty, which ruled theGrand Duchy of Lithuania from 1310s or 1280s to 1572.

Gediminas' origins are unclear, but recent research suggests thatSkalmantas (Skolomend), an otherwise unknown historical figure, was Gediminas' grandfather or father and could be considered the dynasty's founder. Because none of his brothers or sisters had known heirs, Gediminas, who sired at least twelve children, had the advantage in establishing sovereignty over his siblings. Known for his diplomatic skills, Gediminas arranged his children's marriages to suit the goals of his foreign policy: his sons consolidated Lithuanian power within theGrand Duchy of Lithuania, while his daughters established or strengthened alliances with the rulers of areas in modern-dayRussia,Ukraine andPoland. (Full article...)

Unas/ˈjuːnəs/ orWenis, also spelledUnis (Ancient Egyptian:wnjs,hellenized formOenas/ˈiːnəs/ orOnnos; diedc. 2345 BC), was aking, the ninth and last ruler of theFifth Dynasty of Egypt during theOld Kingdom. Unas reigned for around 30 years in the mid-24th century BC (c. 2375–c. 2345 BC), succeedingDjedkare Isesi, who might have been his father.

Little is known of Unas's activities during his reign, which was a time of economic decline. Egypt maintained trade relations with theLevantine coast andNubia, and military action may have taken place in southernCanaan. The growth and decentralization of the administration in conjunction with the lessening of the king's power continued under Unas, ultimately contributing to the collapse of the Old Kingdom some 200 years later. (Full article...)

Causantín mac Áeda (Modern Gaelic:Còiseam mac Aoidh,anglicisedConstantine II; born no later than 879; died 952) was an earlyKing of Scotland, known then by the Gaelic nameAlba. TheKingdom of Alba, a name which first appears in Constantine's lifetime, was situated in what is nowNorthern Scotland.

The core of the kingdom was formed by the lands around theRiver Tay. Its southern limit was theRiver Forth, northwards it extended towards theMoray Firth and perhaps toCaithness, while its western limits are uncertain. Constantine's grandfatherKenneth I (Cináed mac Ailpín, died 858) was the first of the family recorded as a king, but asking of the Picts. This change of title, from king of the Picts toking of Alba, is part of a broader transformation ofPictland and theorigins of the Kingdom of Alba are traced to Constantine's lifetime. (Full article...)

TheShunzhi Emperor (15 March 1638 – 5 February 1661), also known by histemple nameEmperor Shizu of Qing, personal nameFulin, was the secondemperor of theQing dynasty, and the first Qing emperor to rule overChina proper. Upon the death of his fatherHong Taiji, acommittee of Manchu princes chose the 5-year-old Fulin as successor. The princes also appointed two co-regents:Dorgon, the 14th son ofNurhaci, andJirgalang, one of Nurhaci's nephews, both of whom were members of theAisin-Gioro clan. In November 1644, the Shunzhi Emperor was enthroned asemperor of China inBeijing.

From 1643 to 1650, political power lay mostly in the hands of theprince regent Dorgon. Under his leadership, the Qing conquered most of the territory of the fallenMing dynasty, chasedMing loyalist regimes deep into the southwestern provinces, and established the basis of Qing rule overChina proper despite highly unpopular policies such as the "hair cutting command" of 1645, which forced all Qing male subjects to shave their forehead and braid their remaining hair into aqueue resembling that of theManchus. After Dorgon's death on the last day of 1650, the young Shunzhi Emperor started to rule personally. He tried, with mixed success, to fight corruption and to reduce the political influence of the Manchu nobility. In the 1650s, he faced a resurgence of Ming loyalist resistance, but by 1661 his armies had defeated the Qing's last enemies,Koxinga and thePrince of Gui, both of whom would succumb the following year. (Full article...)

Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Nasr (Arabic:أبو عبد الله محمد بن يوسف بن نصر,romanized: Muḥammad ibn Yūsuf ibn Naṣr;c. 1195 – 22 January 1273), also known asIbn al-Ahmar (ابن الأحمر,lit. 'Son of the Red') and by hishonorifical-Ghalib billah (الغالب بالله,lit. 'The Victor by the Grace of God'), was the first ruler of theEmirate of Granada, the last independent Muslim state on theIberian Peninsula, and the founder of its rulingNasrid dynasty. He lived during a time when Iberia's Christian kingdoms—especiallyPortugal,Castile andAragon—wereexpanding at the expense of the Islamic territory in Iberia, calledAl-Andalus. Muhammad ibn Yusuf took power in his nativeArjona in 1232 when he rebelled against the de facto leader of Al-Andalus,Ibn Hud. During this rebellion, he was able to take control ofCórdoba andSeville briefly, before he lost both cities to Ibn Hud. Forced to acknowledge Ibn Hud'ssuzerainty, Muhammad was able to retain Arjona andJaén. In 1236, he betrayed Ibn Hud by helpingFerdinand III of Castile take Córdoba. In the years that followed, Muhammad was able to gain control over southern cities, includingGranada (1237),Almería (1238), andMálaga (1239). In 1244, he lost Arjona to Castile. Two years later, in 1246, heagreed to surrender Jaén and accept Ferdinand's overlordship in exchange for a 20-year truce.

In the 18 years that followed, Muhammad consolidated his domain by maintaining relatively peaceful relations with theCrown of Castile; in 1248; he even helped the Christian kingdom take Seville from the Muslims. But in 1264, he turned against Castile and assisted in the unsuccessfulrebellion of Castile's newly conquered Muslim subjects. In 1266 his allies in Málaga, theBanu Ashqilula, rebelled against the emirate. When these former allies sought assistance fromAlfonso X of Castile, Muhammad was able to convince the leader of the Castilian troops,Nuño González de Lara, to turn against Alfonso. By 1272 Nuño González was actively fighting Castile. The emirate's conflict with Castile and the Banu Ashqilula was still unresolved in 1273 when Muhammad died after falling off his horse. He was succeeded by his son,Muhammad II. (Full article...)

David I orDauíd mac Maíl Choluim (Modern Gaelic:Daibhidh I mac [Mhaoil] Chaluim;c. 1084 – 24 May 1153) was a 12th century ruler andsaint who wasPrince of the Cumbrians from 1113 to 1124 andKing of Scotland from 1124 to 1153. The youngest son ofKing Malcolm III andQueen Margaret, David spent most of his childhood in Scotland but was exiled toEngland temporarily in 1093. Perhaps after 1100, he became a dependent at the court ofKing Henry I of England, by whom he was influenced.

When David's brotherAlexander I died in 1124, David chose, with the backing of Henry I, to take theKingdom of Alba (Scotland) for himself. He was forced to engage in warfare against his rival and nephew,Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair. Subduing the latter seems to have taken David ten years, a struggle that involved the destruction ofÓengus,Mormaer of Moray. David's victory allowed the expansion of control over more distant regions, theoretically part of his Kingdom. After the death of his former patron Henry I, David supported the claims of Henry's daughter and his own niece,Empress Matilda, to the throne of England. In the process, he came into conflict withKing Stephen and was able to expand his power innorthern England, despite his defeat at theBattle of the Standard in 1138. David I is a saint of theCatholic Church, with hisfeast day celebrated on 24 May. (Full article...)

TheHouse of Plantagenet (/plænˈtædʒɪnɪt/plan-TAJ-in-it) was aroyal house which originated in theFrenchcounty of Anjou. The name Plantagenet is used by modern historians to identify four distinct royal houses: theAngevins, who were also counts of Anjou; the main line of the Plantagenets following the loss of Anjou; and the Houses ofLancaster andYork, two of the Plantagenets'cadet branches. The family held theEnglish throne from 1154, with the accession ofHenry II, until 1485, whenRichard III died in battle.

England was transformed under the Plantagenets, although only partly intentionally. The Plantagenet kings were often forced to negotiate compromises such asMagna Carta, which constrained royal power in return for financial and military support. The king was no longer just the most powerful man in the nation, holding the prerogative of judgement, feudal tribute and warfare, but had defined duties to the realm, underpinned by a sophisticated justice system. By the end of the reign ofEdward III, the Plantagenets developed a new identity including adopting the language of the ordinary people—Middle English—as the language of governance. This is one of the reasons that theOxford Dictionary of National Biography considers Edward III as culturally the firstEnglish Plantagenet ruler. (Full article...)

Marcus (Greek: Μᾶρκος; died August 476) was the son of theEastern Roman general and usurperBasiliscus andZenonis. He was acclaimedcaesar in 475 and later promoted toaugustus, ruling as junior co-emperor to his father. WhenZeno reoccupiedConstantinople in late August 476, Marcus, with his parents, hid in a church. Zeno swore he would not spill their blood, and instead had them exiled to Limnae inCappadocia, where they were then starved to death. (Full article...)

Alexandra "Sasha"Kropotkin (1887–1966) was aNew York-based writer andRussian language translator. Her parents, Russian scientist and anarchistPeter Kropotkin and his wifeSophia Kropotkin, were a socially prominent family descended fromKropotkin nobility. Alexandra was born while they were in exile in Great Britain; they returned to Russia after the1917 revolution and lived there until her father's death, after which she emigrated to New York. Although her father had disowned his royal title, Alexandra reclaimed it by writing a women's column for the magazineLiberty under the byline "Princess Alexandra Kropotkin". She also translatedRussian literature into English and wrote a Russian cookbook thatThe New York Times considered "best-in-class". (Full article...)

Vologases IV (Parthian:𐭅𐭋𐭂𐭔Walagash) wasKing of Kings of theParthian Empire from 147 to 191. He was the son ofMithridates V (r. 129–140). Vologases spent the early years of his reign re-asserting Parthian control over theKingdom of Characene. From 161 to 166, he waged war against the Roman Empire; although initially successful, conqueringArmenia andSyria, he was eventually pushed back, briefly losing control of the Parthian capitals ofSeleucia andCtesiphon to the Romans. The Romans suffered heavy losses from a plague erupting from Seleucia in 166, forcing them to withdraw. The war ended soon afterward, with Vologases losing most of northernMesopotamia to the Romans. He died in 191 and was succeeded by his sonVologases V. (Full article...)

Hormizd IV (also spelledHormozd IV orOhrmazd IV;Middle Persian:𐭠𐭥𐭧𐭥𐭬𐭦𐭣) was theKing of Kings ofSasanian Iran from 579 to 590. He was the son and successor ofKhosrow I (r. 531–579) and his mother was aKhazar princess.

During his reign, Hormizd IV had the high aristocracy andZoroastrian priesthood slaughtered while supporting the landed gentry (thedehqans). His reign was marked by constant warfare: to the west, he fought a long and indecisive war with theByzantine Empire, which had been ongoing since the reign of his father; and to the east, the Iranian generalBahram Chobin successfully contained and defeated theWestern Turkic Khaganate during theFirst Perso-Turkic War. It was also during Hormizd IV's reign that theChosroid dynasty ofIberia was abolished. After negotiating with the Iberian aristocracy and winning their support, Hormizd successfully incorporated Iberia into the Sasanian Empire. (Full article...)

Michael VIII Palaiologos orPalaeologus (Greek:Μιχαὴλ Δούκας Ἄνγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος,romanized: Mikhaḗl Doúkās Ángelos Komnēnós Palaiológos; 1224 – 11 December 1282) reigned asByzantine emperor from 1261 until his death in 1282, and previously as the co-emperor of theEmpire of Nicaea from 1259 to 1261. Michael VIII was the founder of thePalaiologan dynasty that would rule theByzantine Empire until theFall of Constantinople in 1453. Herecovered Constantinople from theLatin Empire in 1261 and transformed the Empire of Nicaea into arestored Byzantine Empire. His reign saw considerable recovery of Byzantine power, including the enlargement of theByzantine army andnavy. It also included the reconstruction of the city of Constantinople, and the increase of its population. His re-establishment of theUniversity of Constantinople contributed to thePalaeologan Renaissance, a cultural flowering between the 13th and 15th centuries.

It was also at this time that the focus of the Byzantine military shifted to the Balkans, against theBulgarians, leaving the Anatolian frontier neglected. His successors could not compensate for this change of focus, and both theArsenite schism and two civil wars which occurred from1321–1328 and1341–1347 undermined further efforts toward territorial consolidation and recovery, draining the empire's strength, economy, and resources. Regular conflict between Byzantine successor states such asTrebizond,Epirus, Bulgaria andSerbia resulted in permanent fragmentation of former Byzantine territory and opportunity for increasingly successful conquests of expansive territories by post-SeljukAnatolian beyliks, most notably that ofOsman, later called theOttoman Empire. (Full article...)

Khaba (also read asHor-Khaba) was apharaoh ofAncient Egypt, active during the3rd Dynasty of theOld Kingdom period. The exact time during which Khaba ruled is unknown but may have been around 2670 BC, and almost definitely towards the end of the dynasty.

King Khaba is considered to be difficult to assess as a figure of ancient Egypt. His name is archaeologically well-attested by stone bowls and mud seal impressions. Khaba's reign is securely dated to the Third Dynasty. Because of the contradictions within Ramesside king lists and the lack of contemporary, festive inscriptions, his exact chronological position within the dynasty remains disputed. These problems originate in part from contradictory king lists, which were all compiled long after Khaba's death, especially during theRamesside era (which is separated from the Third Dynasty by 1,400 years). It is also a matter of debate as to where Khaba might have been buried. Many Egyptologists and archaeologists propose that an unfinishedLayer Pyramid atZawyet el'Aryan belongs to him. Others believe instead that his tomb is a largemastaba close to the Layer Pyramid, where numerousstone vessels bearing Khaba's serekh have been found. (Full article...)

Obioye (r. 1119–1121) was the twenty-ninthOgiso ('King') ofIgodomigodo, an early kingdom of theBenin Empire. Born and raised in the rural community of Ihinmwirin as the eldest son ofIdugioduwa (laterOgisoOduwa), he had little urban or aristocratic experience before his accession. His short reign was dominated by a severe, kingdom-wide famine (commonly datedc. 1119 – c. 1125) and runaway inflation; contemporary sources record widespread hardship, migration and the collapse of customary tribute and guild support systems. In response Obioye ordered the seizure of privately held cowries to restrict money supply (known asIgho Obioye ('Obioye's money' or 'hard currency')) and urged subjects to practiseaustere consumption with the proclamationLe ne ukhunmwu ('flee the inflation'); these measures failed to restore food supplies and provoked resistance from merchants and nobles.

Contemporary chroniclers like Osarẹn Boniface Ọmọregie judged Obioye ill-suited to active kingship—he is remembered in the royal bardic tradition as "Obioye who knew not how to act the king"—and he died isolated in 1121. He was succeeded by his sonArigho, whose subsequent fiscal and trade measures are credited with attempting to stabilise the kingdom's economy. (Full article...)

Hossein Ali Mirza (Persian:حسین‌علی میرزا,romanized: Ḥosayn-ʿAlī Mīrzā; 26 August 1789 – 16 January 1835), a son ofFath-Ali Shah (r. 1797–1834), was theGovernor ofFars andpretender to the throne ofQajar Iran.

As governor, Ali Mirza restoredShah Cheragh, following its devastation in a 1795 earthquake. He opened the tombs of theAchaemenid shahs to obtain gold, but found them empty. During his rule, the city of Shiraz was subjected to high taxation and low security. Ali Mirza gained independence from the government ofHajji Mohammad Hossein Isfahani, rentedBushehr ports to theBritish and stopped paying taxes after 1828, thus going 200,000tomans in tax arrears to the crown. (Full article...)

Nikephoros Melissenos (Greek:Νικηφόρος Μελισσηνός,c. 1045 – 17 November 1104),Latinized asNicephorus Melissenus, was aByzantine general and aristocrat. Of distinguished lineage, he served as a governor and general in theBalkans andAsia Minor in the 1060s. In the turbulent period after theBattle of Manzikert in 1071, when several generals tried to seize the throne for themselves, Melissenos remained loyal toMichael VII Doukas and was exiled by his successorNikephoros III Botaneiates. In 1080–1081, with Turkish aid, he seized control of what remained of ByzantineAsia Minor and proclaimed himself emperor against Botaneiates. After the revolt of his brother-in-lawAlexios I Komnenos, however, which succeeded in takingConstantinople, he submitted to him, accepting the rank ofCaesar and the governance ofThessalonica. He remained loyal to Alexios thereafter, participating in most Byzantine campaigns of the period 1081–1095 in theBalkans at the emperor's side. He died on 17 November 1104. (Full article...)

Arigho (c. 1121 – c. 1125) was the thirtiethogiso (king) ofIgodomigodo, an early kingdom that later became part of theBenin Empire. Born into an urban, commercial household and trained in metalwork and trade, he was familiar with the kingdom's monetary systems before his accession. Arigho took the throne amid the Great Famine and high inflation and responded with fiscal rather than military measures, most notably the controversialIgho Arigho ("double-payment") taxation scheme and the appointment of royal officials to enforce it. The policy enlarged the royal treasury and helped moderate prices and re-engage nobles, but its effects were undercut by the contemporaneousOsogan crisis and disruptions to trade.

Arigho's reign lasted four years until he died in 1125. He left a treasury stored in theUye Ihiron ("seven deeps"). He was succeeded by his only surviving son,Owodo. The kingdom continued to experience instability during this period. Historians recognise Arigho for his economic policies during theOgiso period, which are considered a significant point in precolonialWest African economic history. (Full article...)

Tahmasp I (Persian:طهماسب یکم,romanized: Ṭahmāsb orتهماسب یکمTahmâsb; 22 February 1514 – 14 May 1576) was the secondshah ofSafavid Iran from 1524 until his death in 1576. He was the eldest son ofShah Ismail I and his principal consort, theMawsillu princessTajlu Khanum.

Tahmasp ascended the throne after the death of his father on 23 May 1524. The first years of Tahmasp's reign were marked by civil wars between theQizilbash leaders until 1532, when he asserted his authority and began anabsolute monarchy. He soon faced along-lasting war with theOttoman Empire, which was divided into three phases. The Ottoman sultan,Suleiman the Magnificent, tried to install his own candidates on the Safavid throne. The war ended with thePeace of Amasya in 1555, with the Ottomans gaining sovereignty overIraq, much ofKurdistan, and westernGeorgia. Tahmasp also had conflicts with theUzbeks ofBukhara overKhorasan, with them repeatedly raidingHerat. In 1528, at the age of fourteen, he defeated the Uzbeks in the Battle of Jam by usingartillery. (Full article...)

Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Jaʿfar ibnMuḥammad ibnHārūn al-Muʿtazz bi-ʾLlāh (Arabic:أبو عبد الله محمد بن جعفر; 847 – 16 July 869), better known by hisregnal titleal-Muʿtazz bi-ʾLlāh (المعتز بالله, "He who is strengthened by God") was theAbbasid caliph from 866 to 869, during a period of extreme internal instability within the Abbasid Caliphate, known as the "Anarchy at Samarra".

Originally named as the second in line of three heirs of his fatheral-Mutawakkil, al-Mu'tazz was forced to renounce his rights after the accession of his brotheral-Muntasir, and was thrown in prison as a dangerous rival during the reign of his cousinal-Musta'in. He was released and raised to the caliphate in January 866, during thecivil war between al-Musta'in and the Turkish military ofSamarra. Al-Mu'tazz was determined to reassert the authority of the caliph over the Turkish army but had only limited success. Aided by thevizierAhmad ibn Isra'il, he managed to remove and kill the leading Turkish generals,Wasif al-Turki andBugha al-Saghir, but the decline of the Tahirids inBaghdad deprived him of their role as a counterweight to the Turks. Faced with the assertive Turkish commanderSalih ibn Wasif, and unable to find money to satisfy the demands of his troops, he was deposed and died of ill-treatment a few days later, on 16 July 869. (Full article...)

Alberht (alsoEthælbert orAlbert; ruled 749 – about 760) was an eighth-century ruler of thekingdom of East Anglia. He shared the kingdom withBeonna and possibly Hun, who may not have existed. He may still have been king in around 760. He is recorded by theFitzwilliam Museum and the historianSimon Keynes asÆthelberht I.

Historians have accepted that Alberht was a real historical figure who was possibly an heir ofÆlfwald. At Ælfwald's death in 749, the kingdom was divided between Alberht and Beonna, who was perhaps aMercian and who took the lead in issuing regnal coinage and maintaining a military alliance withÆthelbald, king of Mercia. Alberht was ruling in East Anglia when Æthelbald was murdered in 757, after whichBeornred ruled for a year in Mercia, beforeOffa seized power from him. The evidence of Alberht's single discovered coin indicates that he had sufficient authority to issue his own coinage, a degree of independence that was soon eclipsed by the rapid growth of Offa's power in East Anglia. (Full article...)

Theodore Paleologus (Italian:Teodoro Paleologo;c. 1560 – 21 January 1636) was a 16th and 17th-century Greek nobleman, soldier and assassin. According to the genealogy presented on Theodore's tombstone, he was a direct male-line descendant of thePalaiologos dynasty, which had ruled theByzantine Empire from 1259 to itsfall in 1453. Though most of the figures in the genealogy can be verified to have been real historical figures, the veracity of his imperial descent is uncertain.

Born inPesaro around 1560, Theodore was forced into exile after being convicted for the attempted murder of a man called Leone Ramusciatti. He lived in exile for many years and went on to become a proficient soldier and hired assassin. In 1597, Theodore arrived in London, hired by the authorities of theRepublic of Lucca to kill a man namedAlessandro Antelminelli. After failing to track down Antelminelli, Theodore stayed in England, possibly for the rest of his life. (Full article...)

Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik (fl. 705 – 24 December 738) was anUmayyad prince and one of the most prominentArab generals of the early decades of the 8th century, leading several campaigns against theByzantine Empire and theKhazar Khaganate. He achieved great fame especially for leading thelast Arab siege of the Byzantine capitalConstantinople.

He launched his military career leading the annual summer raids against the Byzantines inAnatolia. By 709, he was governor overQinnasrin (northernSyria), theJazira (Upper Mesopotamia),Armenia, andAdharbayjan, giving him control over the Caliphate's northern frontier. From this position, he launched the first Arab expeditions against the Khazars across theCaucasus. Maslama's brother, CaliphSulayman, appointed him to lead the campaign to capture Constantinople in 715, but it ended in disaster for the Arabs and he was ordered to withdraw by Sulayman's successor,Umar II, in 718. (Full article...)