Medicine has been practiced sinceprehistoric times, and for most of this time it was anart (an area of creativity and skill), frequently having connections to thereligious andphilosophical beliefs of local culture. For example, amedicine man would applyherbs and sayprayers for healing, or an ancientphilosopher andphysician would applybloodletting according to the theories ofhumorism, orthe four humors. In recent centuries, since theadvent of modern science, most medicine has become a combination of art and science (bothbasic andapplied, under theumbrella ofmedical science). For example, while stitching technique forsutures is an art learned through practice, knowledge of what happens at thecellular andmolecular level in the tissues being stitched arises through science.
Prescientific forms of medicine, now known astraditional medicine orfolk medicine, remain commonly used in the absence of scientific medicine and are thus calledalternative medicine. Alternative treatments outside of scientific medicine with ethical, safety and efficacy concerns are termedquackery or being based onfringe science. (Full article...)
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The1966 New York City smog was a major air-pollution episode andenvironmental disaster, coinciding with that year'sThanksgiving holiday weekend.Smog covered the city and its surrounding area from November23 to 26, filling the city's air with damaging levels of several toxicpollutants. It was the third major smog inNew York City, following events of similar scale in 1953 and 1963.
On November 23, a large mass of stagnant air over theEast Coast trapped pollutants in the city's air. For three days, New York City was engulfed in dangerously high levels ofcarbon monoxide,sulfur dioxide, smoke, and haze. Pockets ofair pollution pervaded the greaterNew York metropolitan area, including parts of New Jersey and Connecticut. By November 25, the smog became severe enough that regional leaders announced a "first-stage alert". During the alert, leaders of local and state governments asked residents and industry to take voluntary steps to minimize emissions. Health officials advised people with respiratory or heart conditions to remain indoors. The city shut off garbage incinerators, requiring massive hauling of garbage to landfills. Acold front dispersed the smog on November 26, and the alert ended. (Full article...)
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Debora Green (néeJones; born February 28, 1951) is an Americanphysician who pleadedno contest to setting a 1995 fire thatburned down her family's home and killed two of her children, and to poisoning her husband withricin with the intention of causing his death. The case wassensational, and covered heavily by news media, especially in theKansas–Missouri border region, where the crimes occurred. Though Green has petitioned for a new trial twice in recent years, her requests have not been successful.
Green married Michael Farrar in 1979 while practicing as anemergency physician. The marriage was tumultuous, and Farrar filed for divorce in July 1995. Between August and September of that year, Farrar repeatedly fell violently ill, and despite numerous hospitalizations his doctors could not pinpoint the source of his illness. Green's emotional stability deteriorated, and she began to drink heavily, even while supervising her children. On October 24, 1995, the Farrar family home, occupied by Green and the couple's three children — Timothy (age 13), Kate (age 10) and Kelly (age 6) — caught fire. Green and Kate escaped without harm. Despite the efforts of firefighters, Timothy and Kelly died in the blaze. Investigation showed that trails ofaccelerant in the house led back to Green's bedroom, and that the source of Farrar's intractable illness had been ricin, a poison served to him in his food by Green. (Full article...)
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Diagram showing the position of the pancreas, behind the stomach (which is transparent in this schematic).
Pancreatic cancer is any cancer with a primary location in thepancreas, a glandular organ lying behind thestomach. It arises whencells in the pancreas start to multiply out of control and form amass. Thesecancerous cells have theability to invade or spread to other parts of the body. A number of types of pancreatic cancer are known.
The most common type of pancreatic cancer,pancreatic adenocarcinoma, accounts for about 90% of cases, and the term "pancreatic cancer" is sometimes used to refer only to that type. Theseadenocarcinomas start within the ductal part of the pancreas that makesdigestive enzymes. Several other types of cancer, which collectively represent the majority of the non-adenocarcinomas, can also arise from these cells. (Full article...)
The CBC is often carried out as part of a medical assessment and can be used to monitor health or diagnose diseases. The results are interpreted by comparing them toreference ranges, which vary with sex and age. Conditions likeanemia andthrombocytopenia are defined by abnormal complete blood count results. The red blood cell indices can provide information about the cause of a person's anemia such asiron deficiency andvitamin B12 deficiency, and the results of the white blood cell differential can help to diagnoseviral,bacterial andparasitic infections andblood disorders likeleukaemia. Not all results falling outside of the reference range require medical intervention. (Full article...)
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Endoscopy of theduodenum showing fissured folds with a scalloped appearance
The classic form of the disease can affect any age group, but is usually diagnosed in early childhood and causes symptoms ofmalabsorption such asweight loss,diarrhoea, andstunted growth. Non-classic coeliac disease is more commonly seen in adults, characterised by vague abdominal symptoms and complications in organs outside the gastrointestinal tract, such asbone disease,anaemia, and other consequences ofnutritional deficiencies. In people with agenetic predisposition to the condition, eating gluten causesinflammation in the small intestine, damaging itslining and leading to malabsorption. The development of coeliac disease is believed to be influenced by other environmental factors, such as infections. (Full article...)
John Rolph (4 March 1793 – 19 October 1870) was a Canadian physician, lawyer, and political figure. As a politician, he was considered the leader of theReform faction in the 1820s and helped plan theUpper Canada Rebellion. As a doctor, he founded several medical schools and incorporated new teaching techniques and medical procedures into his lectures. However, his actions against rival medical schools decreased public confidence in the ability of medical professionals to regulate themselves.
Rolph grew up in England and was educated in medicine and law. He immigrated toUpper Canada in 1813 and lived on his father's farm inPort Talbot, where he practiced law and medicine concurrently and opened a medical school called the Talbot Dispensary. In 1824, Rolph was elected to theParliament of Upper Canada and returned to England to petition theColonial Office to allow thenaturalization of American citizens in Canada. He was elected as analderman toToronto's first city council, though he resigned after his council colleagues did not select him to be the city's mayor. (Full article...)
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Clothembroidered by a person diagnosed with schizophrenia
Bupropion, formerly calledamfebutamone, and sold under the brand nameWellbutrin among others, is anatypical antidepressant that is indicated in the treatment ofmajor depressive disorder andseasonal affective disorder and to supportsmoking cessation. Anorepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor (NDRI), it is also popular as anadd-on medication in the cases of "incomplete response" to the first-lineselective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressant. Bupropion has several features that distinguish it from other antidepressants: It does not usually cause sexual dysfunction, it is not associated with weight gain andsleepiness, and it is more effective than SSRIs at improving symptoms ofhypersomnia and fatigue. Bupropion, particularly the immediate-release formulation, carries a higher risk ofseizure than many other antidepressants; hence, caution is recommended in patients with a history ofseizure disorder. The medication is takenby mouth.
Diagnosis requires abiopsy of the prostate. If cancer is present, the pathologist assigns aGleason score; a higher score represents a more dangerous tumor. Medical imaging is performed to look for cancer that has spread outside the prostate. Based on the Gleason score, PSA levels, and imaging results, a cancer case is assigned astage 1 to 4. A higher stage signifies a more advanced, more dangerous disease. (Full article...)
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Tatsuguchi soon after his induction into the Imperial Japanese Army in 1941 and his initial assignment to the First Imperial Guard Regiment in Tokyo
A devoutSeventh-day Adventist, Tatsuguchi studied medicine and was licensed as a physician in the United States (US). He returned to his native Japan to practice medicine at the Tokyo AdventistSanitarium, where he received further medical training. In 1941, he was ordered to cease his medical practice and conscripted into the IJA as an acting medical officer, although he was given an enlisted rather than officer rank because of his American connections. In late 1942, Tatsuguchi was sent to Attu, which had been occupied by Japanese forces in June 1942. On May 11, 1943, TheUnited States Armylanded on the island, intending to retake American soil from the Japanese. (Full article...)
Leeches are segmentedparasitic orpredatoryworms that comprise thesubclassHirudinea within thephylumAnnelida. They are closely related to theoligochaetes, which include theearthworm, and like them have soft, muscular segmented bodies that can lengthen and contract. Both groups arehermaphrodites and have aclitellum, but leeches typically differ from the oligochaetes in having suckers at both ends and ring markings that do not correspond with their internal segmentation. The body is muscular and relatively solid; thecoelom, the spacious body cavity found in other annelids, is reduced to small channels.
The majority of leeches live in freshwater habitats, while some species can be found in terrestrial or marine environments. The best-known species, such as the medicinal leech,Hirudo medicinalis, arehematophagous, attaching themselves to a host with a sucker and feeding on blood, having first secreted the peptidehirudin to prevent the blood from clotting. The jaws used to pierce the skin are replaced in other species by aproboscis which is pushed into the skin. A minority of leech species are predatory, mostly preying on small invertebrates. (Full article...)
Female genital mutilation (FGM) (also known asfemale genital cutting,female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) andfemale circumcision) is the cutting or removal of some or all of thevulva for non-medical reasons.FGM prevalence varies worldwide, but is significantly present in some countries of Africa, Asia and Middle East, and within their diasporas. As of 2024[update],UNICEF estimates that worldwide 230 million girls and women (144 million in Africa, 80 million in Asia, 6 million in Middle East, and 1-2 million in other parts of the world) had been subjected toone or more types of FGM.
Typically carried out by a traditional cutter using a blade, FGM is conducted from days after birth to puberty and beyond. In half of the countries for which national statistics are available, most girls are cut before the age of five. Procedures differ according to the country or ethnic group. They include removal of theclitoral hood (type 1-a) andclitoral glans (1-b); removal of theinner labia (2-a); and removal of the inner andouter labia and closure of the vulva (type 3). In this last procedure, known asinfibulation, a small hole is left for the passage of urine andmenstrual fluid, thevagina is opened forintercourse and opened further for childbirth. FGM is commonly performed without any form ofanesthesia oranalgesia and with non-medical equipment such asrazor blades. (Full article...)
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Young people with polio receiving physiotherapy in the 1950s Thesocial history of viruses describes the influence ofviruses and viral infections on human history.Epidemics caused by viruses began when human behaviour changed during theNeolithic period, around 12,000 years ago, when humans developed more densely populated agricultural communities. This allowed viruses to spread rapidly and subsequently to becomeendemic.Viruses of plants and livestock also increased, and as humans became dependent on agriculture and farming, diseases such aspotyviruses of potatoes andrinderpest of cattle had devastating consequences.
Smallpox andmeasles viruses are among the oldest that infect humans. Having evolved from viruses that infected other animals, they first appeared in humans in Europe and North Africa thousands of years ago. The viruses were later carried to the New World by Europeans during the time of theSpanish Conquests, but theindigenous people had no natural resistance to the viruses and millions of them died during epidemics. Influenzapandemics have been recorded since 1580, and they have occurred with increasing frequency in subsequent centuries. Thepandemic of 1918–19, in which 40–50 million died in less than a year, was one of the most devastating in history. (Full article...)
Magnetic resonance imaging is a commonly used form ofmedical imaging which creates images of the inside of opaque organs in living organisms and detects the amount of bound water in geological structures. It is primarily used to visualise alterations of living tissues. Afunctional MRI scan (shown in the image) measures signal changes in thebrain that are due to changingneural activity.
A graduate of theUniversity of Melbourne, where she studied medicine and excelled at sports, Mary qualified as ageneral practitioner in 1921 and became a resident surgeon atRoyal Melbourne Hospital. Her work was mainly with poor women, many of whom lived in unsanitary conditions and had inadequate diets. The social mores of the time often kept young women ignorant of matters dealing with sex and pregnancy. She recognised that pregnant women in particular needed more information about what was happening to them, and provided information onbirth control at a time when many doctors and a large segment of the community were opposed to it. "She broke taboos", Della Hilton later wrote, and "made forbidden subjects not only matters for discussion, but for action". (Full article...)
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Sir Edward Ford (15 April 1902 – 27 August 1986) was an Australian soldier, academic and physician. He played an important role in the anti-malaria campaign in theSouth West Pacific Area during theSecond World War, and in preventative medicine in Australia after the war, but is best known for hisBibliography of Australian Medicine.
After the war, Ford wrote a thesis on malaria control in theSouth West Pacific, for which he was awarded hisDoctor of Medicine (MD) degree by the University of Melbourne in 1946. He became Director of the School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine at the University of Sydney in 1946, and Professor of Preventive Medicine in 1947, concurrently holding these two positions until his 1968 retirement. (Full article...)
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A myocardial infarction occurs when anatheroscleroticplaque slowly builds up in the inner lining of acoronary artery and then suddenly ruptures, causing catastrophicthrombus formation, totally occluding the artery and preventing blood flow downstream to the heart muscle.
Arrow points to brachytherapy beads used to treat prostate cancer.
Brachytherapy is a form ofradiation therapy where a sealedradiation source is placed inside or next to the area requiring treatment. The word "brachytherapy" comes from theGreek wordβραχύς,brachys, meaning "short-distance" or "short". Brachytherapy is commonly used as an effective treatment forcervical,prostate,breast,esophageal andskin cancer and can also be used to treat tumours in many other body sites. Treatment results have demonstrated that the cancer-cure rates of brachytherapy are either comparable to surgery andexternal beam radiotherapy (EBRT) or are improved when used in combination with these techniques. Brachytherapy can be used alone such as in early prostate cancer or in combination with other therapies such as surgery, EBRT andchemotherapy such as in advanced cervical cancer
Brachytherapy contrasts withunsealed source radiotherapy, in which a therapeuticradionuclide (radioisotope) is injected into the body to chemically localize to the tissue requiring destruction. It also contrasts to External Beam Radiation Therapy (EBRT), in which high-energy x-rays (or occasionally gamma-rays from a radioisotope likecobalt-60) are directed at the tumour from outside the body. Brachytherapy instead involves the precise placement of short-range radiation-sources (radioisotopes,iodine-125 orcaesium-131 for instance) directly at the site of the cancerous tumour. These are enclosed in a protective capsule or wire, which allows the ionizing radiation to escape to treat and kill surrounding tissue but prevents the charge of radioisotope from moving or dissolving in body fluids. The capsule may be removed later, or (with some radioisotopes) it may be allowed to remain in place. (Full article...)
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Location of thelumbar region (pink) in relation to the human skeleton
Low back pain orlumbago is a commondisorder involving the muscles, nerves, and bones of theback, in between the lower edge of the ribs and the lower fold of the buttocks.Pain can vary from a dull constant ache to a sudden sharp feeling. Low back pain may be classified byduration as acute (pain lasting less than 6 weeks), sub-chronic (6 to 12 weeks), or chronic (more than 12 weeks). The condition may be further classified by the underlying cause as either mechanical, non-mechanical, orreferred pain. The symptoms of low back pain usually improve within a few weeks from the time they start, with 40–90% of people recovered by six weeks.
In most episodes of low back pain a specific underlying cause is not identified or even looked for, with the pain believed to be due to mechanical problems such asmuscle orjoint strain. If the pain does not go away with conservative treatment or if it is accompanied by "red flags" such as unexplained weight loss,fever, or significant problems with feeling or movement, further testing may be needed to look for a serious underlying problem. In most cases, imaging tools such as aCT scan are not useful or recommended for low back pain that lasts less than 6 weeks (with no red flags) and carry their own risks. Despite this, the use of imaging in low back pain has increased. Some low back pain is caused by damagedintervertebral discs, and thestraight leg raise test is useful to identify this cause. In those with chronic pain, the pain processing system may malfunction, causing large amounts of pain in response to non-serious events. Chronic non-specific low back pain (CNSLBP) is a highly prevalent musculoskeletal condition that not only affects the body, but also a person's social and economic status. It would be greatly beneficial for people with CNSLBP to be screened for genetic issues, unhealthy lifestyles and habits, and psychosocial factors on top of musculoskeletal issues. Chronic lower back pain is defined as back pain that lasts more than three months. (Full article...)
Many people have no symptoms after exposure. For others, symptoms may appear 30 to 180 days after exposure and can include a rapid onset of sickness withnausea,vomiting,yellowish skin,fatigue, yellow urine, andabdominal pain. Symptoms during acute infection typically last for a few weeks, though some people may feel sick for up to six months. Deaths resulting from acute stage HBV infections are rare. An HBV infection lasting longer than six months is usually considered chronic. The likelihood of developing chronic hepatitis B is higher for those who are infected with HBV at a younger age. About 90% of those infected during or shortly after birth develop chronic hepatitis B, while less than 10% of those infected after the age of five develop chronic cases. Most of those with chronic disease have no symptoms; however,cirrhosis andliver cancer eventually develop in about 25% of those with chronic HBV. (Full article...)
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Kusumoto Ine (楠本 イネ, 31 May 1827 – 27 August 1903; bornShiimoto Ine失本 稲) was a Japanese physician. She was the first female doctor of Western medicine in Japan.
She was the daughter of Kusumoto Taki, who was a courtesan fromNagasaki; and the German physicianPhilipp Franz von Siebold, who worked onDejima, an island foreigners were restricted to during Japan'slong period of seclusion from the world. Ine was also known asO-Ine and later in life took the nameItoku (伊篤). In Japanese she is often calledOranda O-Ine ("Dutch O-Ine") for her association with Dejima and itsDutch-language Western learning. (Full article...)
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Fibrothorax on chest x-ray
Fibrothorax is a medical condition characterised by severe scarring (fibrosis) and fusion of the layers of thepleural space surrounding thelungs resulting in decreased movement of the lung and ribcage. The main symptom of fibrothorax isshortness of breath. There also may be recurrentfluid collections surrounding the lungs. Fibrothorax may occur as a complication of many diseases, including infection of the pleural space known as anempyema or bleeding into the pleural space known as ahaemothorax.
Fibrosis in the pleura may be produced intentionally using a technique calledpleurodesis to prevent recurrent punctured lung (pneumothorax), and the usually limited fibrosis that this produces can rarely be extensive enough to lead to fibrothorax. The condition is most often diagnosed using anX-ray orCT scan, the latter more readily detecting mild cases. Fibrothorax is often treated conservatively withwatchful waiting but may require surgery. The outlook is usually good as long as there is no underlyingpulmonary fibrosis or complications following surgery. The disease is highly uncommon. (Full article...)
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Apostprandialmanometry of a patient with rumination syndrome showing intra-abdominal pressure. The "spikes" are characteristic of the abdominal wall contractions responsible for the regurgitation in rumination.
Rumination syndrome, ormerycism, is a chronicmotility disorder characterized by effortlessregurgitation of most meals following consumption, due to the involuntary contraction of the muscles around theabdomen. There is noretching,nausea,heartburn, odour, or abdominal pain associated with the regurgitation as there is with typicalvomiting, and the regurgitated food is undigested. The disorder has been historically documented as affecting only infants, young children, and people withcognitive disabilities (the prevalence is as high as 10% in institutionalized patients with various mental disabilities). It is increasingly being diagnosed in a greater number of otherwise healthy adolescents and adults, though there is a lack of awareness of the condition by doctors, patients, and the general public.
Rumination syndrome presents itself in a variety of ways, with especially high contrast existing between the presentation of the typical adult patient without a mental disability and the presentation of an adult with a mental disability. Like related gastrointestinal disorders, rumination can adversely affect normal functioning and the social lives of individuals. It has been linked with depression. (Full article...)
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Europeanfur traders doing business with Native Americans in 1777, with a barrel of rum to the left ManyNative Americans in the United States have been harmed by, or become addicted to, drinkingalcohol. Among contemporary Native Americans andAlaska Natives, 11.7% of all deaths are related to alcohol. By comparison, about 5.9% of global deaths are attributable to alcohol consumption. Because of negativestereotypes and biases based on race and social class, generalizations and myths abound around the topic of Native American alcohol misuse.
A survey of death certificates from 2006 to 2010 showed that deaths among Native Americans due to alcohol are about four times as common as in the generalU.S. population. They are often due totraffic collisions andliver disease, withhomicide,suicide, andfalls also contributing. Deaths related to alcohol among Native Americans are more common in men and among NorthernPlains Indians. Alaska Natives showed the lowest incidence of alcohol-related death. Alcohol misuse amongst Native Americans has been shown to be associated withdevelopment of disease, including hearing and vision problems, kidney and bladder problems, head injuries,pneumonia,tuberculosis, dental problems, liver problems, andpancreatitis. In some tribes, the rate offetal alcohol spectrum disorder is as high as 1.5 to 2.5 per 1,000 live births, more than seven times the national average, while among Alaska Natives, the rate of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder is 5.6 per 1,000 live births. (Full article...)
Adrenal crisis, also known asAddisonian crisis oracute adrenal insufficiency, is a life-threatening complication ofadrenal insufficiency.Hypotension andhypovolemic shock are the main symptoms of an adrenal crisis. Other symptoms include weakness,anorexia,nausea, vomiting, fever, fatigue, abnormalelectrolytes,confusion, and coma. Laboratory testing may detect low sodium, high potassium,high lymphocyte count,high eosinophils,low blood sugar, and rarely high calcium. The biggest trigger for adrenal crisis is gastrointestinal illness. Those with primary adrenal insufficiency are at a higher risk for an adrenal crisis. The physiological mechanisms underlying an adrenal crisis involve the loss of endogenousglucocorticoids' typical inhibitory effect on inflammatorycytokines.
When someone with adrenal insufficiency exhibits symptoms of an adrenal crisis, treatment must begin immediately. To diagnose an adrenal crisis, serumcortisol,aldosterone,ACTH,renin, anddehydroepiandrosterone sulfate are measured. A low cortisol level of less than 3 mg/dL, measured in the early morning or during a stressful period, suggests a diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency. A tailored prescription, and strategies for administering additional glucocorticoids for physiological stress, are critical preventative measures. When someone experiences an adrenal crisis, they require immediate parenteralhydrocortisone. About 6–8% of those with adrenal insufficiency experience an adrenal crisis at some point each year. The mortality rate linked to adrenal crises is up to 6%. (Full article...)
Hanhart syndrome is a broadly classified medical condition consisting ofcongenital disorders that cause an undeveloped tongue and malformed extremities and fingers. There exist five types of Hanhart syndrome, with the severity and nature of the condition ranging widely on a case-by-case basis. Hanhart syndrome is classified as arare disease, with approximately 30 known cases having been reported between 1932 and 1991. Early hypotheses believed that the disorder was caused by genetic conditions, with a more recent hypothesis demonstrating that the disorder may be caused by hemorrhagic lesions during prenatal development. The causal mechanism behind this vascular disruption is still unknown. (Full article...)
Each Commission took five months to complete its investigations. The "Franklin" Report was presented to the King on 11 August 1784 – and was immediately published and very widely circulated throughout France and neighbouring countries – and the "Society" Report was presented to the King five days later on 16 August 1784. (Full article...)
Image 5Theplinthios brochos as described by Greek physicianHeraklas, a sling for binding afracturedjaw. These writings were preserved in one ofOribasius' collections. (fromHistory of medicine)
Image 6Magical stela or cippus ofHorus inscribed with healing encantations (c. 332 to 280BCE) (fromHistory of medicine)
Image 17A 12th-century manuscript of theHippocratic Oath in Greek, one of the most famous aspects of classical medicine that carried into later eras (fromHistory of medicine)
Image 18A doctor checks a patient's pulse in Meiji-era Japan. (fromHistory of medicine)
Image 19Health Expenditure per capita (inPPP-adjustedUS$) among several OECD member nations. Data source: OECD's iLibrary (fromHealth insurance)
Image 20Theemergency room is often a frontline venue for the delivery of primary medical care. (fromHealth care)
Image 25The Quaker-runYork Retreat, founded in 1796, gained international prominence as a centre for moral treatment and a model of asylum reform following the publication ofSamuel Tuke'sDescription of the Retreat (1813). (fromHistory of medicine)
Image 36Medical personnel place sterilized covers on the arms of thedaVinci Xi surgical system, a minimally-invasive robotic surgery system, at the William Beaumont Army Medical Center. (fromHistory of medicine)
Image 37Ethical prayer for medical wisdom by Dr Edmond Fernandes (fromMedical ethics)
Image 38Statue ofRobert Koch, father of medical bacteriology, at Robert-Koch-Platz (Robert Koch square) in Berlin (fromHistory of medicine)
Image 39Primary care may be provided in community health centers. (fromHealth care)
Image 44Global concentrations of health care resources, as depicted by the number of physicians per 10,000 individuals, by country. Data is sourced from aWHOindicator and is from 2017-2023. (fromHealth care)
Image 45Infographic showing how healthcare data flows within the billing process (fromMedical billing)
Image 48Medicine during the First World War - medical transport (fromHistory of medicine)
Image 49Most countries have seen a tremendous increase in life expectancy since 1945. However, in southern Africa, the HIV epidemic beginning around 1990 has eroded national health. (fromHistory of medicine)
... that film directorOrlando Bagwell initially thought that he would enter a career in medicine?
... thatPlotkin's Vaccines was written by the inventor of the rubella vaccine because he felt that vaccinology had become a distinct field of medicine?
... that medicine deanSjahriar Rasad was accused of being involved in a conspiracy to assassinate Indonesian presidentSukarno?
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