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The 1963March on Washington participants and leaders marching from theWashington Monument to theLincoln Memorial

Thecivil rights movement was asocial movement in theUnited States from 1954 to 1968 which aimed to abolish legalizedracial segregation,discrimination, anddisenfranchisement in the country, which most commonly affectedAfrican Americans. The movement had origins in theReconstruction era in the late 19th century, and modern roots in the 1940s. After years ofnonviolent protests andcivil disobedience campaigns, the civil rights movement achieved many of its legislative goals in the 1960s, during which it secured new protections infederal law for thecivil rights of all Americans, including theCivil Rights Act of 1964 and theVoting Rights Act of 1965.

Following theAmerican Civil War (1861–1865), the threeReconstruction Amendments to theU.S. Constitution abolished slavery and granted citizenship to all African Americans, the majority of whom had recently been enslaved in the southern states. During Reconstruction, African-American men in the South voted and held political office, but after 1877 they were increasingly deprived of civil rights under racistJim Crow laws (which for examplebanned interracial marriage, introducedliteracy tests for voters, andsegregated schools) and were subjected to violence fromwhite supremacists during thenadir of American race relations. African Americans who moved to the North in order to improve their prospects in theGreat Migration also faced barriers in employment and housing. Legal racial discrimination was upheld by theSupreme Court in its 1896 decision inPlessy v. Ferguson, which established the doctrine of "separate but equal". The movement for civil rights, led by figures such asW. E. B. Du Bois andBooker T. Washington, achieved few gains until afterWorld War II. In 1948, PresidentHarry S. Truman issuedan executive order abolishing discrimination in the armed forces.

In 1954, the Supreme Court struck down state laws establishingracial segregation in public schools inBrown v. Board of Education. A mass movement for civil rights, led byMartin Luther King Jr. and others, began a campaign ofnonviolent protests andcivil disobedience including theMontgomery bus boycott in 1955–1956, "sit-ins" inGreensboro andNashville in 1960, theBirmingham campaign in 1963, and a march fromSelma to Montgomery in 1965. Press coverage of events such as the lynching ofEmmett Till in 1955 and the use of fire hoses and dogs against protesters in Birmingham increased public support for the civil rights movement. In 1963, about 250,000 people participated in theMarch on Washington, after which PresidentJohn F. Kennedy asked Congress to pass civil rights legislation. Kennedy's successor,Lyndon B. Johnson, overcame the opposition of southern politicians to pass three major laws: theCivil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin inpublic accommodations, employment, and federally assisted programs; theVoting Rights Act of 1965, which outlawed discriminatory voting laws and authorized federal oversight of election law in areas with a history of voter suppression; and theFair Housing Act of 1968, which banned housing discrimination. The Supreme Court made further pro–civil rights rulings in cases includingBrowder v. Gayle (1956) andLoving v. Virginia (1967), banning segregation in public transport and striking down laws against interracial marriage. (Full article...)

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Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896), was alandmark United States Supreme Court decision ruling thatracial segregation laws did not violate theU.S. Constitution as long as the facilities for each race were equal in quality, a doctrine that came to be known as "separate but equal". The decision legitimized the many "Jim Crow laws" re-establishing racial segregation that had been passed in theAmerican South after the end of theReconstruction era in 1877.

The underlying case began in 1892 whenHomer Plessy, a mixed-race man, deliberately boarded a whites-only train car inNew Orleans. By boarding the whites-only car, Plessy violatedLouisiana'sSeparate Car Act of 1890, which required "equal, but separate" railroad accommodations for white and black passengers. Plessy was charged under the Act, and at his trial his lawyers argued that judgeJohn Howard Ferguson should dismiss the charges on the grounds that the Act was unconstitutional. Ferguson denied the request, and theLouisiana Supreme Court upheld Ferguson's ruling on appeal. Plessy then appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court.

In May 1896, the Supreme Court issued a 7–1 decision against Plessy, ruling that the Louisiana law did not violate theFourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. It held that although the Fourteenth Amendment established the legal equality of whites and blacks, it did not and could not require the elimination of all "distinctions based upon color". The Court rejected Plessy's lawyers' arguments that the Louisiana law inherently implied that black people were inferior. It gave great deference to American state legislatures' inherent power to make laws regulating health, safety, and morals—the "police power"—and to determine the reasonableness of the laws they passed. JusticeJohn Marshall Harlan was the lone dissenter from the Court's decision, writing that the U.S. Constitution "is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens", and so the laws distinguishing races should have been found unconstitutional. (Full article...)

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The following are images from various civil rights movement-related articles on Wikipedia.

Image 1Image of workers guarding an entrance to the Fischer Body Plant in Flint, Michigan (1937) (fromSit-in movement)
Image 2Charlton Heston,James Baldwin,Marlon Brando, andHarry Belafonte (fromMarch on Washington)
Image 3Poster from Office of War Information. Domestic Operations Branch. News Bureau, 1943. (fromCivil rights movement (1896–1954))
Image 4First Colored Senator and Representatives: Sen.Hiram Revels (R-MS), Rep.Benjamin Turner (R-AL),Robert DeLarge (R-SC),Josiah Walls (R-FL),Jefferson Long (R-GA),Joseph Rainey andRobert B. Elliott (R-SC), 1872 (fromCivil rights movement (1865–1896))
Image 5A diagram showing where Rosa Parks sat in the unreserved section at the time of her arrest (fromMontgomery bus boycott)
Image 6Executive Committee of theNational Negro Business League, c. 1910. NNBL founderBooker T. Washington (1856–1915) is seated, second from the left. (fromCivil rights movement (1896–1954))
Image 7ActorOssie Davis (fromMarch on Washington)
Image 8Women marching for equal rights, integrated schools and decent housing (fromAfrican-American women in the civil rights movement)
Image 9A plaque commemorating a sit-in that took place in February 1960 in Chattanooga, Tennessee (fromSit-in movement)
Image 10Kathleen Cleaver delivering a speech, 1971 (fromAfrican-American women in the civil rights movement)
Image 11Kennedy meets with march leaders. Left to Right – Willard Wirtz, Matthew Ahmann, Martin Luther King Jr., John Lewis, Rabbi Joachin Prinz, Eugene Carson Blake, A. Philip Randolph, President John F. Kennedy, Vice President Lyndon Johnson, Walter Reuther, Whitney Young, Floyd McKissick, Roy Wilkins (not in order) (fromMarch on Washington)
Image 12Fannie Lou Hamer founded Freedom Farm Cooperative, an operation meant to alleviate Black sharecropper poverty in the South. (fromAfrican-American women in the civil rights movement)
Image 13Leaders gather for a portrait (fromMarch on Washington)
Image 14Leaders arrived late and linked arms in front of marchers on Constitution Avenue. (fromMarch on Washington)
Image 15"A Man Was Lynched Yesterday" flag, hanging at theLibrary of Congress (fromCivil rights movement (1896–1954))
Image 16Rosa Parks being fingerprinted by Deputy Sheriff D.H. Lackey after her arrest for boycotting public transportation (fromMontgomery bus boycott)
Image 1750th Anniversary of the Civil Rights March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom (fromMarch on Washington)
Image 18African American women participate in Civil Rights protest in Tallahassee, Florida, 1963 (fromAfrican-American women in the civil rights movement)
Image 19VocalistsPeter, Paul, and Mary (fromMarch on Washington)
Image 20Rosa Parks being fingerprinted by Deputy Sheriff D.H. Lackey after being arrested on February 22, 1956, during the Montgomery bus boycott. (fromAfrican-American women in the civil rights movement)
Image 21Black people in Memphis under attack,Harper's Weekly, 26 May 1866 (fromCivil rights movement (1865–1896))
Image 22Leaders of the march in front of the statue of Abraham Lincoln: (sitting L-R)Whitney Young,Cleveland Robinson,A. Philip Randolph,Martin Luther King Jr., andRoy Wilkins; (standing L-R)Mathew Ahmann,Joachim Prinz,John Lewis,Eugene Carson Blake,Floyd McKissick, andWalter Reuther (fromMarch on Washington)
Image 23March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom program (fromMarch on Washington)
Image 24Sidney Poitier,Harry Belafonte andCharlton Heston (fromMarch on Washington)
Image 25Juvenile African-American convicts working in the fields in a chain gang, photo taken c. 1903 (fromCivil rights movement (1896–1954))
Image 26Bishop Henry McNeal Turner, AME leader in Georgia. (fromCivil rights movement (1865–1896))
Image 27Freedmen voting in New Orleans, 1867 (fromCivil rights movement (1865–1896))
Image 28Montgomery Improvement Association poster announcing desegrated seating on buses (New York Public Library) (fromMontgomery bus boycott)
Image 29Leaders of the March on Washington speak to the news media after meeting with President Kennedy at the White House. (fromMarch on Washington)
Image 30Martin Luther King Jr. waving his hand to the crowd after delivering his "I Have a Dream" speech (fromMarch on Washington)
Image 31John Lewis speaking in theGreat Hall of theLibrary of Congress on the 50th anniversary, August 28, 2013 (fromMarch on Washington)
Image 32One of the many churches involved in aiding members of the sit-movement (fromSit-in movement)
Image 33Smithsonian Institution traveling exhibition "381 Days: The Montgomery Bus Boycott" at theWashington State History Museum (fromMontgomery bus boycott)
Image 34Close up of some leaders of the March on Washington walking along Constitution Avenue. (fromMarch on Washington)
Image 35Joan Baez andBob Dylan performing at the March on Washington (fromMarch on Washington)

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Samuel Wilbert Tucker (June 18, 1913 – October 19, 1990) was an American lawyer and a cooperating attorney with theNational Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). His civil rights career began as he organized a 1939sit-in at the then-segregatedAlexandria, Virginia public library. A partner in theRichmond, Virginia, firm of Hill, Tucker and Marsh (formerlyHill,Martin andRobinson), Tucker argued and won several civil rights cases before theSupreme Court of the United States, includingGreen v. County School Board of New Kent County which, according toThe Encyclopedia of Civil Rights In America, "did more to advance school integration than any other Supreme Court decision sinceBrown." (Full article...)

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A. Philip Randolph and other civil rights leaders on their way to Congress during the March on Washington, 1963.

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Did you know?

... thatSammy Younge Jr. was the first black college student to be murdered for participating in thecivil rights movement?
... that civil rights activistUnita Blackwell was the first African-American woman to be elected mayor in the state ofMississippi?
... thatcivil rights leaderFannie Lou Hamer was brutally beaten at theorders of police inMississippi, US for standing up againstracial segregation?
... that afterJ. Charles Jones led an anti-segregationsit-in with hundreds of activists at acounter in aWoolworth inCharlotte, NC, the store closed its counter to prevent furtherintegration?
... that in 1955,a white supremacist organization claimed theracial integration of schools in the United States was a plot devised in Moscow to "mongrelize"White Americans?

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Civil rights movement (1954–1968)

Events
(timeline)

Prior to 1954	Journey of Reconciliation Executive Order 9981 Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore Sweatt v. Painter (1950) McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950) Baton Rouge bus boycott
1954–1959	Brown v. Board of Education Bolling v. Sharpe Briggs v. Elliott Davis v. Prince Edward County Gebhart v. Belton Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company Read's Drug Store sit-in Emmett Till Montgomery bus boycott Browder v. Gayle Tallahassee bus boycott Mansfield school desegregation 1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom "Give Us the Ballot" Royal Ice Cream sit-in Little Rock Nine Cooper v. Aaron Civil Rights Act of 1957 Ministers' Manifesto Dockum Drug Store sit-in Katz Drug Store sit-in Kissing Case Biloxi wade-ins
1960–1963	New Year's Day March Sit-in movement Greensboro sit-ins Nashville sit-ins Sibley Commission Atlanta sit-ins Savannah Protest Movement Greenville Eight Civil Rights Act of 1960 Ax Handle Saturday New Orleans school desegregation Gomillion v. Lightfoot Boynton v. Virginia University of Georgia desegregation riot Rock Hill sit-ins Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address Freedom Rides Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks Garner v. Louisiana Albany Movement Cambridge movement University of Chicago sit-ins "Second Emancipation Proclamation" Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot Atlanta's Berlin Wall "Segregation now, segregation forever" Stand in the Schoolhouse Door 1963 Birmingham campaign Letter from Birmingham Jail Children's Crusade Birmingham riot 16th Street Baptist Church bombing John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights Detroit Walk to Freedom Leesburg Stockade March on Washington "I Have a Dream" Big Six St. Augustine movement
1964–1968	Twenty-fourth Amendment Chester school protests Bloody Tuesday 1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests Freedom Summer workers' murders Civil Rights Act of 1964 Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States Katzenbach v. McClung 1964–1965 Scripto strike 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches "How Long, Not Long" SCOPE Project Voting Rights Act of 1965 Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections March Against Fear White House Conference on Civil Rights Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement Loving v. Virginia Memphis sanitation strike King assassination funeral riots Civil Rights Act of 1968 Poor People's Campaign Green v. County School Board of New Kent County Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co. 1968 Olympics Black Power salute

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v t e Civil Rights Memorial
Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC)
Designer	Maya Lin
Martyrs	Louis Allen Willie Brewster Benjamin Brown Johnnie Mae Chappell James Chaney Addie Mae Collins Vernon Dahmer Jonathan Daniels Henry Hezekiah Dee Roman Ducksworth Jr. Willie Edwards Medgar Evers Andrew Goodman Paul Guihard Samuel Hammond Jr. Jimmie Lee Jackson Wharlest Jackson Martin Luther King Jr. Bruce W. Klunder George W. Lee Herbert Lee Viola Liuzzo Carol Denise McNair Delano Herman Middleton Charles Eddie Moore Oneal Moore William Lewis Moore Mack Charles Parker Lemuel Penn James Reeb John Earl Reese Carole Robertson Michael Schwerner Henry Ezekial Smith Lamar Smith Emmett Till Clarence Triggs Virgil Lamar Ware Cynthia Wesley Ben Chester White Sammy Younge Jr.
Related	Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore Mississippi Cold Case
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