Pope Paul III (Latin:Paulus III;Italian:Paolo III; bornAlessandro Farnese; 29 February 1468 – 10 November 1549) was head of theCatholic Church and ruler of thePapal States from 13 October 1534 to his death, in November 1549.
Born in 1468 atCanino,Latium (then part of the Papal States), Alessandro Farnese was the second son of Pier Luigi I Farnese, Signore diMontalto (1435–1487) and Giovanna Caetani,[1][2] a member of theCaetani family which had producedPope Gelasius II andPope Boniface VIII. TheFarnese family had prospered over the centuries, but it was Alessandro's ascendency to the papacy and his dedication to family interests which brought about the most significant increase in the family's wealth and power.
Alessandro was given a humanist education at theUniversity of Pisa and the court ofLorenzo de' Medici.[3] Initially trained as anapostolic notary, he joined theRoman Curia in 1491 and in 1493Pope Alexander VI appointed him Cardinal-Deacon ofSanti Cosma e Damiano. Alessandro's sister,Giulia, was reputedly a mistress of Alexander VI, and might have been instrumental in securing this appointment for her brother. For this reason, he was sometimes mockingly referred to as the "Borgia brother-in-law," just as Giulia was mocked as "the Bride of Christ." Much later (in 1535), the Venetian nobleman Soriano recorded that Alessandro was calledcardinale Fregnese (Cardinal P*ssy, or Cardinal C*nt) on account of the relationship between his sister and Alexander VI.[4]
As a young cleric, Alessandro lived a notably dissolute life, taking a mistress,Silvia Ruffini. Between about 1500 and 1510, she gave birth to at least four children:Costanza,[1]Pier Luigi (who was later createdDuke of Parma),[5] Paolo, andRanuccio. In July 1505, Pope Julius IIlegitimated the two eldest sons so that they could inherit the Farnese family estates.[6] On 23 June 1513, Pope Leo X published a second legitimation of Pier Luigi, and also legitimized Ranuccio (the second son Paolo had already died).[7]
On 28 March 1509, Alessandro was named Bishop of Parma, but he was not ordained a priest until 26 June 1519 and not consecrated a bishop until 2 July 1519. As Bishop of Parma, he came under the influence of his vicar-general,Bartolomeo Guidiccioni. This led to Alessandro breaking off the relationship with his mistress and committing himself to reform in his diocese.[8] UnderPope Clement VII (1523–34) he was namedCardinal Bishop of Ostia andDean of the College of Cardinals.
On the death of Clement VII in 1534, he was elected as Pope Paul III on 13 October 1534.[9] Farnese, who did not fall within any of the factions, was considered a very good choice by the cardinals since his state of health denoted a short papacy which would give those cardinals time to select a proper candidate for a future conclave. On 3 November, Paul III was formallycrowned by theprotodeaconInnocenzo Cybo.
The fourth pope during the period of theProtestant Reformation, Paul III became the first to take active reform measures in response to Protestantism.[8] Soon after his elevation, 2 June 1536, Paul III summoned a general council to meet atMantua in the following May, but the opposition of the Protestant princes and the refusal ofFederico II Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua to assume the responsibility of maintaining order frustrated the project.[2] Paul III first deferred for a year and then discarded the whole project.
In 1536, Paul III invited a committee of nine eminentprelates, distinguished by learning and piety alike, to report on the reformation and rebuilding of the Church. In 1537 they produced the celebratedConsilium de emendenda ecclesia,[10] exposing gross abuses in the Roman Curia, the church administration, and public worship; and proffering bold proposals aimed at abolishing such abuses. The report was widely printed, and the pope was in earnest when he took up the problem of reform. He clearly perceived that EmperorCharles V would not rest until the problems were grappled with in earnest.
However, to the Protestants, the report seemed far from thorough;Martin Luther had his edition (1538) prefaced with a vignette showing the cardinals cleaning theAugean stable of the Roman Church with foxtails instead of brooms. In the end, no results followed from the committee's recommendations.
As a consequence of the extensive campaign against "idolatry" inEngland, culminating with the dismantling of the shrine of St.Thomas Becket atCanterbury, Paul III excommunicatedHenry VIII on 17 December 1538 and issued an interdict on England.[11]
In 1534, a decision by Paul III favoured the activity of merchants of all nationalities and religions from theLevant and allowed them to settle with their families inAncona, which had become part of thePapal States under his predecessorClement VII. This decision helped make Ancona a prosperous trading city for centuries to come. A Venetian travelling through Ancona in 1535 recorded that the city was "full of merchants from every nation and mostly Greeks and Turks." In the second half of the 16th century, the presence of Greek and other merchants from theOttoman Empire declined after a series of restrictive measures taken by the Italian authorities and the pope.[12]
Around this time, family complications arose. In order to vest his grandsonOttavio Farnese with theDuchy of Camerino, Paul forcibly wrested the same from theduke of Urbino (1540). He also incurred virtual war with his own subjects and vassals by the imposition of burdensome taxes.Perugia, renouncing its obedience, was besieged by Paul's son, Pier Luigi, and forfeited its freedom entirely on its surrender. The burghers ofColonna were duly vanquished, and Ascanio was banished (1541). After this, the time seemed ripe for annihilating heresy.
In 1540, the Church officially recognized the society forming aboutIgnatius of Loyola, which became theSociety of Jesus.[13] In 1542, a second stage in the process of Counter-Reformation was marked by the institution, or reorganization, of the Congregation of the Holy Office of theInquisition.
On another side, the emperor was insisting that Rome should forward his designs toward a peaceable recovery of the German Protestants. Accordingly, Paul III despatchedGiovanni Morone (not as yet a cardinal) asnuncio toHagenau andWorms in 1540; and in 1541 CardinalGasparo Contarini took part in the adjustment proceedings at theConference of Regensburg. It was Contarini who proposed the famous formula "by faith alone are we justified," which did not, however, supersede the Roman Catholic doctrine of good works. At Rome, this definition was rejected in theconsistory of 27 May, and Luther declared that he could accept it only provided the opposers would admit that this formula constituted a change of doctrine.
Ranuccio Farnese was made cardinal by Paul III at the age of 15.
However, after the Regensburg Conference had proved fruitless, the emperor insisted on a still larger council, with the final result being theCouncil of Trent, which finally was convoked on 15 March 1545, under the bullLaetare Hierusalem.
Meanwhile, after the peace ofCrespy (September 1544), Emperor Charles V (1519 – 1556) began to put down Protestantism by force. Pending theDiet of Worms in 1545, the emperor concluded a covenant of joint action with the papal legate Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, with Paul III agreeing to aid in the projected war against the German Protestant princes and estates. This prompt acquiescence was probably grounded on personal motives: Because the emperor was preoccupied in Germany, the moment now seemed opportune for the pope to acquire for his son Pier Luigi the duchies ofParma and Piacenza.[5] Although these belonged to the Papal States, Paul III planned to overcome the reluctance of the cardinals by exchanging these papal duchies for the less valuable domains of Camerino andNepi. The emperor agreed, welcoming the prospect of 12,000 infantry, 500 cavalry, and considerable funds from the pope.
In Germany the campaign began in the west, whereArchbishop of CologneHermann of Wied had converted to Protestantism in 1542. Emperor Charles began open warfare against the Protestant princes, estates, and cities allied in theSchmalkaldic League (seePhilip of Hesse). Hermann was excommunicated on 16 April 1546 and compelled by the emperor to abdicate in February 1547. By the close of 1546, Charles V had subjugated South Germany. The victory at theBattle of Mühlberg on 24 April 1547 established his imperial sovereignty everywhere in Germany, and the two leaders of the League were captured. The emperor declared theAugsburg Interim as a magnanimous compromise with the defeated schismatics.
The Farnese coat of arms orstemma on the facade of theFarnese Palace in Rome
Although the emperor had subdued the German Protestant armies, he had failed to support the pope's territorial ambitions for his son Pier Luigi, and relations between them cooled. The situation came to a total rupture whenFerrante Gonzaga, the imperial vice-regent, forcibly expelled Pier Luigi.
In 1547, the pope's son was assassinated atPiacenza, and Paul III placed some of the blame on the emperor. In the same year, and after the death ofFrancis I of France (1515–47) deprived the pope of a potential ally, the stress of circumstances compelled him to accept the ecclesiastical measures in the emperor's Interim.
With reference to the assassinated prince's inheritance, the restitution of which Paul III demanded ostensibly in the name of the church, the pope's design was thwarted by the emperor, who refused to surrender Piacenza, and by Pier Luigi's heir in Parma, Ottavio Farnese.
In consequence of a violent altercation on this account with Cardinal Farnese, Paul III, at the age of 81, became so overwrought that an attack of sickness ensued from which he died on 10 November 1549.
Paul III proved unable to suppress the Protestant Reformation, but it was during his pontificate that the foundation was laid for theCounter-Reformation. He decreed the second and finalexcommunication of Henry VIII of England in December 1538. His efforts in Parma led to theWar of Parma two years after his death.
In May–June 1537, Paul issued the bullSublimis Deus (also known asUnigenitus andVeritas ipsa), described by Prein (2008) as the "Magna Carta" for the human rights of theindigenous peoples of the Americas in its declaration that "the Indians were human beings and they were not to be robbed of their freedom or possessions". The subsequent implementing documentPastorale officium declared automatic excommunication for anyone who failed to abide by the new ruling.[14]
However, it met with strong opposition from the Council of the West Indies and the Crown, which declared that it violated their patronato rights, and the pope annulled the orders the following year with the documentNon Indecens Videtur.[15] Stogre (1992) notes thatSublimis Deus is not present inDenzinger, the authoritative compendium of official Catholic teachings, and Davis (1988) asserts it was annulled due to a dispute with the Spanish crown.[16] However, the original bull continued to circulate and be quoted bylas Casas and others who supported Indian rights.[17]
According to Falkowski (2002)Sublimis Deus had the effect of revoking the bull of Alexander VI,Inter caetera, but still leaving the colonizers the duty of converting the native people.[18][14] FatherGustavo Gutierrez describes it as "the most important papal document relating to the condition of native Indians and that it was addressed to all Christians".[19] Maxwell (1975) notes that the bull did not change the traditional teaching that the enslavement of Indians was permissible if they were considered "enemies of Christendom", as this would be considered by the Church as a "just war". He[clarification needed] further argues that the Indian nations had every right to self-defence.[20] Stark - 2003 - describes the bull as "magnificent" and believes that it was long forgotten due to the neglect of Protestant historians.[21] Falola noted that the bull related to the native populations of the New World and did not condemn the transatlantic slave trade stimulated by the Spanish monarchy and the Holy Roman Emperor.[22]
In 1545, Paul repealed an ancient law that allowed slaves to claim their freedom under the emperor's statue on Rome'sCapitoline Hill, in view of the number of homeless people and tramps in the city.[23] The decree included those who had become Christians after their enslavement and those born to Christian slaves. The right of inhabitants of Rome to publicly buy and sell slaves of both sexes was affirmed.[24] Stogre (1992) asserts that the lifting of restrictions was due to a shortage of slaves in Rome.[25] In 1548, Paul authorized the purchase and possession of Muslim slaves in the Papal states.[26]
Also in 1537, Paul issuedAltitudo divini consilii. This bull discusses evangelization and conversion, including the real way to apply the sacraments, in particular baptism.[27] This was especially important in the early days of colonial rule, when hundreds and sometimes thousands of indigenous people were baptized every day.[27] One interesting aspect of this bull is its discussion of how to deal with local practices, for example, polygamy. After their conversion, polygamous men had to marry their first wife, but if they could not remember which wife was the first, they then "could choose among the wives the one they preferred."[28]
Arguably the most significant artistic work produced during Paul's reign was theLast Judgement byMichelangelo in theSistine Chapel of theVatican Palace. Although the work was commissioned by Paul III's predecessor,Pope Clement VII, following the latter's death in 1534 Paul renewed the commission and oversaw its completion in 1541.[29]
As a cardinal, Alessandro had begun construction of thePalazzo Farnese in central Rome, and its planned size and magnificence increased upon his election to the papacy. The palace was initially designed by the architectAntonio da Sangallo the Younger, received further architectural refinement fromMichelangelo, and was completed byGiacomo della Porta. Like other Farnese family buildings, the imposing palace proclaims the family's power and wealth, similarly to Alessandro'sVilla Farnese at Caprarola. In 1546, after the death of Sangallo, Paul appointed the elderly Michelangelo to take supervision of the building ofSt. Peter's Basilica. Paul also commissioned Michelangelo to paint the 'Crucifixion of St. Peter' and the 'Conversion of St. Paul' (1542–50), his last frescoes, in thePauline Chapel of the Vatican.
Paul III's artistic and architectural commissions were numerous and varied. TheVenetian artistTitian painted a portrait of the pope in 1543, and in 1546, the well-known portrait of Paul III with his grandsons Cardinal Alessandro Farnese andOttavio Farnese, Duke of Parma. Both are now in theCapodimonte Museum in Naples. The military fortifications in Rome and the Papal States were strengthened during his reign.[30] He had Michelangelo move the ancient bronze of the EmperorMarcus Aurelius to theCapitoline Hill, where it became the centerpiece to thePiazza del Campidoglio.
On 27 September 1540, Paul III formally approved the establishment of theSociety of Jesus in thepapal bull,Regimini militantis Ecclesiae. Originally, Paul III restricted the fledgling order to 60 members in the bullIniunctum nobis, but he lifted that restriction upon seeing just how effective they were in their missionary actions.[31] In 1548, he permittedSaint Ignatius of Loyola to print hisSpiritual Exercises.
Similarly, in 1540, Paul III approved the Rule of theSomaschi Fathers, and on 9 June 1544, he approved the Rule for theUrsulines in the bullRegimini Universalis.
In 1535, Paul III intended to nominate DesideriusErasmus to the cardinalate, but he declined on the grounds of ill health and his age. In preparations for the 1542 consistory, Paul III intended to nominateGiovanni Guidiccioni, but the latter died before the consistory took place. In that 1542 consistory, according to Conradus Eubel, the pope is said to have reserved an undefined number of other cardinalsin pectore.[32]
Rome, Italy. St. Peter's, tomb of Paul III. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection.
On 3 November 1549, Paul III celebrated the anniversary of his papal coronation. However, the pope was severely depressed by the deceit of his own family and the fall of Parma to Emperor Charles V, and it is known that he had a very heated argument with his cardinal nephew,Alessandro Farnese, to the point that he grabbed his red beretta, tore it into shreds, and threw it down to the ground in his anger. He had worked himself up so much to the point that he may have suffered aheart attack. On 6 November, the pope suddenly contracted afever, retreating to theQuirinal Hill where he had hoped that the fresher air would help ease his malady. On 7 November, the agent of KingFerdinand I of Bohemia and Hungary, Diego Lasso, wrote that the pope's temperature had increased that morning, while the French ambassador in Rome reported to KingHenry II of France that Paul III suffered from acatarrh at 7:00 pm, opining that the pope had very little time to live.[33]
Paul III died on 10 November 1549 from a catarrh. It is said that he repented of his nepotism on his deathbed.[citation needed]
Paul III's bronze tomb, executed byGuglielmo della Porta, is located in Saint Peter's Basilica.
Davis, David Brion,The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture, Oxford University Press U.S., 1988,ISBN0-19-505639-6
The Encyclopedia Of Christianity, Volume 5, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2008,ISBN0-8028-2417-X
Falola, Toyin, and Amanda Warnock,Encyclopedia of the Middle Passage, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007,ISBN0-313-33480-3
Gamrath, Helge (2007).Farnese: Pomp, Power, and Politics in Renaissance Italy. L'Erma Di Bretschneider.
Hamann, Byron Ellsworth (2020).Bad Christians, New Spains Muslims, Catholics, and Native Americans in a Mediterratlantic World. Routledge.
Knecht, R.J. (2014).Catherine De'Medici. Taylor & Francis.
Lampe, Armando,Christianity in the Caribbean: Essays on Church History, 2001, University of the West Indies Press,ISBN976-640-029-6
Maxwell, John Francis,Slavery and the Catholic Church: The History of Catholic Teaching Concerning the Moral Legitimacy of the Institution of Slavery, 1975, Chichester Barry-Rose,ISBN0-85992-015-1
Panzer, Father Joel S,The Popes and Slavery, The Church In History Centre, 22 April 2008, retrieved 9 August 2009
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