Eduardo Paolozzi,I was a Rich Man's Plaything (1947). Part of hisBunk! series, this is considered the initial bearer of "pop art" and the first to show the word "pop".Andy Warhol,Campbell's Tomato Juice Box, 1964. Synthetic polymer paint and silkscreen ink on wood, 10 inches × 19 inches × 9½ inches (25.4 × 48.3 × 24.1 cm),Museum of Modern Art,New York City
Pop art is anart movement that emerged in theUnited Kingdom and theUnited States during the mid- to late1950s.[1][2] The movement presented a challenge to traditions offine art by including imagery frompopular andmass culture, such asadvertising,comic books and mundane mass-produced objects. One of its aims is to use images ofpopular culture in art, emphasizing the banal orkitschy elements of any culture, most often through the use ofirony.[3] It is also associated with the artists' use of mechanical means of reproduction or rendering techniques. In pop art, material is sometimes visually removed from its known context, isolated, or combined with unrelated material.[2][3]
Pop art often takes imagery that is currently in use in advertising. Product labeling and logos figure prominently in the imagery chosen by pop artists, seen in the labels ofCampbell's Soup Cans, byAndy Warhol. Even the labeling on the outside of a shipping box containing food items for retail has been used as subject matter in pop art, as demonstrated by Warhol'sCampbell's Tomato Juice Box, 1964 (pictured).
The origins of pop art in North America developed differently from those in Great Britain.[3] In the United States, pop art emerged as a reaction by artists; it marked a return tohard-edged composition andrepresentational art. The artists employed impersonal, mundane reality,irony, andparody to "defuse" the personal symbolism and "painterly looseness" ofabstract expressionism.[4][6] In the U.S., some works byLarry Rivers,Alex Katz andMan Ray anticipated pop art.[7]
By contrast, the origins of pop art inpost-war Britain, while employing irony and parody, were more academic. British artists focused on the dynamic and paradoxical imagery of Americanpop culture as powerful, manipulative symbolic devices that were affecting whole patterns of life, while simultaneously improving the prosperity of a society.[6] Early pop art in Britain was a matter of ideas fueled byAmerican popular culturewhen viewed from afar.[4] Similarly, pop art was both an extension and a repudiation ofDadaism.[4] While pop art and Dadaism explored some of the same subjects, pop art replaced the destructive, satirical, and anarchic impulses of the Dada movement with a detached affirmation of the artifacts of mass culture.[4] Among those artists in Europe seen as producing work leading up to pop art are:Pablo Picasso,Marcel Duchamp, andKurt Schwitters.
Although both British and American pop art began during the 1950s,Marcel Duchamp and others in Europe likeFrancis Picabia andMan Ray predate the movement; in addition there were some earlier Americanproto-pop origins which utilized "as found" cultural objects.[4] During the 1920s, American artistsPatrick Henry Bruce,Gerald Murphy,Charles Demuth andStuart Davis created paintings that contained pop culture imagery (mundane objects culled from American commercial products and advertising design), almost "prefiguring" the pop art movement.[8][9]
TheIndependent Group (IG), founded in London in 1952, is regarded as the precursor to the pop art movement.[2][10] They were a gathering of young painters, sculptors, architects, writers and critics who were challenging prevailing modernist approaches to culture as well as traditional views of fine art. Their group discussions centered on pop culture implications from elements such as mass advertising, movies, product design, comic strips, science fiction and technology. At the first Independent Group meeting in 1952, co-founding member, artist and sculptorEduardo Paolozzi presented a lecture using a series ofcollages titledBunk! that he had assembled during his time in Paris between 1947 and 1949.[2][10] This material of "found objects" such as advertising, comic book characters, magazine covers and various mass-produced graphics mostly representedAmerican popular culture. One of the collages in that presentation was Paolozzi'sI was a Rich Man's Plaything (1947), which includes the first use of the word "pop", appearing in a cloud of smoke emerging from a revolver.[2][11] Following Paolozzi's seminal presentation in 1952, the IG focused primarily on the imagery of American popular culture, particularly mass advertising.[6]
According to the son ofJohn McHale, the term "pop art" was first coined by his father in 1954 in conversation withFrank Cordell,[12] although other sources credit its origin to British criticLawrence Alloway.[13][14] (Both versions agree that the term was used inIndependent Group discussions by mid-1955.)
"Pop art" as a moniker was then used in discussions by IG members in the Second Session of the IG in 1955, and the specific term "pop art" first appeared in published print in the article "But Today We Collect Ads" by IG membersAlison and Peter Smithson in Ark magazine in 1956.[15] However, the term is often credited toBritishart critic/curatorLawrence Alloway for his 1958 essay titledThe Arts and the Mass Media, even though the precise language he uses is "popular mass culture".[16] "Furthermore, what I meant by it then is not what it means now. I used the term, and also 'Pop Culture' to refer to the products of the mass media, not to works of art that draw upon popular culture. In any case, sometime between the winter of 1954–55 and 1957 the phrase acquired currency in conversation..."[17] Nevertheless, Alloway was one of the leading critics to defend the inclusion of the imagery of mass culture in the fine arts. Alloway clarified these terms in 1966, at which time pop art had already transited from art schools and small galleries to a major force in the artworld. But its success had not been in England. Practically simultaneously, and independently, New York City had become the hotbed for pop art.[17]
In London, the annualRoyal Society of British Artists (RBA) exhibition of young talent in 1960 first showed American pop influences. In January 1961, the most famous RBA-Young Contemporaries of all putDavid Hockney, the AmericanR B Kitaj, New ZealanderBilly Apple,Allen Jones,Derek Boshier,Joe Tilson,Patrick Caulfield,Peter Phillips,Pauline Boty andPeter Blake on the map; Apple designed the posters and invitations for both the 1961 and 1962 Young Contemporaries exhibitions.[18] Hockney, Kitaj and Blake went on to win prizes at the John-Moores-Exhibition in Liverpool in the same year. Apple and Hockney traveled together to New York during the Royal College's 1961 summer break, which is when Apple first made contact with Andy Warhol – both later moved to the United States and Apple became involved with the New York pop art scene.[18]
Although pop art began in the early 1950s, in America it was given its greatest impetus during the 1960s. The term "pop art" was officially introduced in December 1962; the occasion was a "Symposium on Pop Art" organized by theMuseum of Modern Art.[19] By this time, American advertising had adopted many elements of modern art and functioned at a very sophisticated level. Consequently, American artists had to search deeper for dramatic styles that would distance art from the well-designed and clever commercial materials.[6] As the British viewed American popular culture imagery from a somewhat removed perspective, their views were often instilled with romantic, sentimental and humorous overtones. By contrast, American artists, bombarded every day with the diversity of mass-produced imagery, produced work that was generally more bold and aggressive.[10]
According to historian, curator and criticHenry Geldzahler, "Ray Johnson's collagesElvis Presley No. 1 andJames Dean stand as the Plymouth Rock of the Pop movement."[20] AuthorLucy Lippard wrote that "The Elvis ... and Marilyn Monroe [collages] ... heralded Warholian Pop."[21] Johnson worked as a graphic designer, met Andy Warhol by 1956 and both designed several book covers for New Directions and other publishers. Johnson began mailing out whimsical flyers advertising his design services printed via offset lithography. He later became known as the father ofmail art as the founder of his "New York Correspondence School," working small by stuffing clippings and drawings into envelopes rather than working larger like his contemporaries.[22] A note about the cover image in January 1958'sArt News pointed out that "[Jasper] Johns' first one-man show ... places him with such better-known colleagues as Rauschenberg, Twombly, Kaprow and Ray Johnson".[23]
Indeed, two other important artists in the establishment of America's pop art vocabulary were the paintersJasper Johns andRobert Rauschenberg.[10] Rauschenberg, who like Ray Johnson attendedBlack Mountain College in North Carolina afterWorld War II, was influenced by the earlier work ofKurt Schwitters and otherDada artists, and his belief that "painting relates to both art and life" challenged the dominant modernist perspective of his time.[24] His use of discarded readymade objects (in hisCombines) and pop culture imagery (in his silkscreen paintings) connected his works to topical events in everyday America.[10][25][26] The silkscreen paintings of 1962–64 combined expressive brushwork with silkscreened magazine clippings fromLife,Newsweek, andNational Geographic. Johns' paintings of flags, targets, numbers, and maps of the U.S. as well three-dimensional depictions of ale cans drew attention to questions of representation in art.[27] Johns' and Rauschenberg's work of the 1950s is frequently referred to asNeo-Dada, and is visually distinct from the prototypical American pop art which exploded in the early 1960s.[28][29]
Roy Lichtenstein is of equal importance to American pop art. His work, and its use ofparody, probably defines the basic premise of pop art better than any other.[10] Selecting the old-fashioned comic strip as subject matter, Lichtenstein produces a hard-edged, precise composition that documents while also parodying in a soft manner. Lichtenstein usedoil andMagna paint in his best known works, such asDrowning Girl (1963), which wasappropriated from the lead story inDC Comics'Secret Hearts #83. (Drowning Girl is part of the collection of theMuseum of Modern Art.)[30] His work features thick outlines, bold colors andBen-Day dots to represent certain colors, as if created by photographic reproduction. Lichtenstein said, "[abstract expressionists] put things down on the canvas and responded to what they had done, to the color positions and sizes. My style looks completely different, but the nature of putting down lines pretty much is the same; mine just don't come out looking calligraphic, like Pollock's or Kline's."[31] Pop art merges popular and mass culture with fine art while injecting humor, irony, and recognizable imagery/content into the mix.
The paintings of Lichtenstein, like those of Andy Warhol,Tom Wesselmann and others, share a direct attachment to the commonplace image of American popular culture, but also treat the subject in an impersonal manner clearly illustrating the idealization of mass production.[10]
Andy Warhol is probably the most famous figure in pop art. In fact, art critic Arthur Danto once called Warhol "the nearest thing to a philosophical genius the history of art has produced".[19] Warhol attempted to take pop beyond an artistic style to a life style, and his work often displays a lack of human affectation that dispenses with the irony and parody of many of his peers.[32][33]
Donald Factor, the son ofMax Factor Jr., and an art collector and co-editor ofavant-gardeliterary magazineNomad, wrote an essay in the magazine's last issue,Nomad/New York. The essay was one of the first on what would become known as pop art, though Factor did not use the term. The essay, "Four Artists", focused on Roy Lichtenstein,James Rosenquist, Jim Dine, and Claes Oldenburg.[36]
In the 1960s, Oldenburg, who became associated with the pop art movement, created manyhappenings, which wereperformance art-related productions of that time. The name he gave to his own productions was "Ray Gun Theater". The cast of colleagues in his performances included: artistsLucas Samaras,Tom Wesselmann,Carolee Schneemann,Öyvind Fahlström andRichard Artschwager; dealer Annina Nosei;art criticBarbara Rose; and screenwriterRudy Wurlitzer.[37] His first wife, Patty Mucha, who sewed many of his early soft sculptures, was a constant performer in his happenings. This brash, often humorous, approach to art was at great odds with the prevailing sensibility that, by its nature, art dealt with "profound" expressions or ideas. In December 1961, he rented a store on Manhattan'sLower East Side to houseThe Store, a month-long installation he had first presented at theMartha Jackson Gallery in New York, stocked with sculptures roughly in the form of consumer goods.[37]
Opening in 1962,Willem de Kooning's New York art dealer, theSidney Janis Gallery, organized the groundbreakingInternational Exhibition of the New Realists, a survey of new-to-the-scene American, French, Swiss, ItalianNew Realism, and British pop art. The fifty-four artists shown includedRichard Lindner,Wayne Thiebaud, Roy Lichtenstein (and his paintingBlam), Andy Warhol, Claes Oldenburg,James Rosenquist, Jim Dine,Robert Indiana,Tom Wesselmann,George Segal, Peter Phillips, Peter Blake (The Love Wall from 1961),Öyvind Fahlström,Yves Klein,Arman,Daniel Spoerri,Christo andMimmo Rotella. The show was seen by EuropeansMartial Raysse,Niki de Saint Phalle andJean Tinguely in New York, who were stunned by the size and look of the American artwork. Also shown wereMarisol,Mario Schifano,Enrico Baj andÖyvind Fahlström. Janis lost some of his abstract expressionist artists whenMark Rothko,Robert Motherwell,Adolph Gottlieb andPhilip Guston quit the gallery, but gained Dine, Oldenburg, Segal and Wesselmann.[38] At an opening-night soiree thrown by collector Burton Tremaine, Willem de Kooning appeared and was turned away by Tremaine, who ironically owned a number of de Kooning's works. Rosenquist recalled: "at that moment I thought, something in the art world has definitely changed".[19] Turning away a respected abstract artist proved that, as early as 1962, the pop art movement had begun to dominate art culture in New York.
A bit earlier, on theWest Coast, Roy Lichtenstein, Jim Dine and Andy Warhol from New York City;Phillip Hefferton andRobert Dowd from Detroit;Edward Ruscha andJoe Goode from Oklahoma City; and Wayne Thiebaud from California were included in theNew Painting of Common Objects show. This first pop art museum exhibition in America was curated byWalter Hopps at thePasadena Art Museum.[39] Pop art was ready to change the art world. New York followed Pasadena in 1963, when theGuggenheim Museum exhibitedSix Painters and the Object, curated byLawrence Alloway. The artists were Jim Dine, Jasper Johns, Roy Lichtenstein, Robert Rauschenberg, James Rosenquist, and Andy Warhol.[40] Another pivotal early exhibition wasThe American Supermarket organised by the Bianchini Gallery in 1964. The show was presented as a typical small supermarket environment, except that everything in it—the produce, canned goods, meat, posters on the wall, etc.—was created by prominent pop artists of the time, including Apple, Warhol, Lichtenstein, Wesselmann, Oldenburg, and Johns. This project was recreated in 2002 as part of theTate Gallery'sShopping: A Century of Art and Consumer Culture.[41]
By 1962, pop artists started exhibiting in commercial galleries in New York and Los Angeles; for some, it was their first commercial one-man show. TheFerus Gallery presented Andy Warhol in Los Angeles (andEd Ruscha in 1963). In New York, theGreen Gallery showed Rosenquist, Segal, Oldenburg, and Wesselmann. TheStable Gallery showed R. Indiana and Warhol (in his first New York show). TheLeo Castelli Gallery presented Rauschenberg, Johns, and Lichtenstein.Martha Jackson showed Jim Dine and Allen Stone showed Wayne Thiebaud. By 1966, after the Green Gallery and the Ferus Gallery closed, the Leo Castelli Gallery represented Rosenquist, Warhol, Rauschenberg, Johns, Lichtenstein and Ruscha. The Sidney Janis Gallery represented Oldenburg, Segal, Dine, Wesselmann and Marisol, while Allen Stone continued to represent Thiebaud, andMartha Jackson continued representing Robert Indiana.[42]
Contemporary of American pop art—often conceived as its transposition in France—new realism was along withFluxus and other groups one of the numerous tendencies of the avant-garde in the 1960s. The group initially choseNice, on the French Riviera, as its home base since Klein and Arman both originated there; new realism is thus often retrospectively considered by historians to be an early representative of theÉcole de Nice [fr] movement.[46] In spite of the diversity of their plastic language, they perceived a common basis for their work; this being a method of directappropriation of reality, equivalent, in the terms used by Restany; to a "poetic recycling of urban, industrial and advertising reality".[47]
In Spain, the study of pop art is associated with the "new figurative", which arose from the roots of the crisis ofinformalism.Eduardo Arroyo could be said to fit within the pop art trend, on account of his interest in the environment, his critique of our media culture which incorporates icons of bothmass media communication and the history of painting, and his scorn for nearly all established artistic styles. However, the Spanish artist who could be considered most authentically part of "pop" art is Alfredo Alcaín, because of the use he makes of popular images and empty spaces in his compositions.[citation needed]
Also in the category of Spanish pop art is the "Chronicle Team" (El Equipo Crónica), which existed inValencia between 1964 and 1981, formed by the artistsManolo Valdés and Rafael Solbes. Their movement can be characterized as "pop" because of its use of comics and publicity images and its simplification of images and photographic compositions.FilmmakerPedro Almodóvar emerged from Madrid's "La Movida" subculture of the 1970s making low budgetsuper 8 pop art movies, and he was subsequently called the Andy Warhol of Spain by the media at the time. In the bookAlmodovar on Almodovar, he is quoted as saying that the 1950s film "Funny Face" was a central inspiration for his work. One pop trademark in Almodovar's films is that he always produces a fake commercial to be inserted into a scene.[citation needed]
In New Zealand, pop art has predominately flourished since the 1990s, and is often connected toKiwiana. Kiwiana is a pop-centered, idealised representation of classicallyKiwi icons, such asmeat pies,kiwifruit,tractors,jandals,Four Square supermarkets; the inherentcampness of this is often subverted to signify cultural messages.[48]Dick Frizzell is a famous New Zealand pop artist, known for using older Kiwiana symbols in ways that parody modern culture. For example, Frizzell enjoys imitating the work of foreign artists, giving their works a unique New Zealand view or influence. This is done to show New Zealand's historically subdued impact on the world;naive art is connected to Aotearoan pop art this way.[49]
This can be also done in an abrasive and deadpan way, as withMichel Tuffery's famous workPisupo Lua Afe (Corned Beef 2000). OfSamoan ancestry, Tuffery constructed the work, which represents a bull, out of processed food cans known aspisupo. It is an unusual work of western pop art because Tuffery includes themes of neocolonialism and racism against non-western cultures (signified by the food cans the work is made of, which represent economic dependence brought onSamoans by the west). The undeniable indigenous viewpoint makes it stand out against more common non-indigenous works of pop art.[50][51] Other New Zealand pop artists to deal with similar subject matter areMāori artistsMichael Parekōwhai andReuben Paterson.
One of New Zealand's earliest and famous pop artists isBilly Apple, one of the few non-British members of theRoyal Society of British Artists. Featured among the likes ofDavid Hockney, AmericanR.B. Kitaj andPeter Blake in the January 1961 RBA exhibitionYoung Contemporaries, Apple quickly became an iconic international artist of the 1960s. This was before he conceived his moniker of "Billy Apple", and his work was displayed under his birth name of Barrie Bates. He sought to distinguish himself by appearance as well as name, so bleached his hair and eyebrows with Lady Clairol Instant Creme Whip. Later, Apple was associated with the 1970sConceptual Art movement.[52]
In Japan, pop art evolved from the nation's prominentavant-garde scene. The use of images of the modern world, copied from magazines in the photomontage-style paintings produced byHarue Koga in the late 1920s and early 1930s, foreshadowed elements of pop art.[53] The Japanese Gutai movement led to a 1958 Gutai exhibition at Martha Jackson's New York gallery that preceded by two years her famous New Forms New Media show that put pop art on the map.[54] The work ofYayoi Kusama contributed to the development of pop art and influenced many other artists, including Andy Warhol.[55][56] In the mid-1960s, graphic designerTadanori Yokoo became one of the most successful pop artists and an international symbol for Japanese pop art. He is well known for his advertisements and creating artwork for pop culture icons such as commissions fromThe Beatles,Marilyn Monroe, andElizabeth Taylor, among others.[57] Another leading pop artist at that time wasKeiichi Tanaami. Iconic characters from Japanesemanga andanime have also become symbols for pop art, such asSpeed Racer andAstro Boy. Japanese manga and anime also influenced later pop artists such asTakashi Murakami and hissuperflat movement.
Italian pop art originated in 1950s culture – the works of the artistsEnrico Baj andMimmo Rotella to be precise, rightly considered the forerunners of this scene. In fact, it was around 1958–1959 that Baj and Rotella abandoned their previous careers (which might be generically defined as belonging to anon-representational genre, despite being thoroughly post-Dadaist), to catapult themselves into a new world of images, and the reflections on them, which was springing up all around them. Rotella's torn posters showed an ever more figurative taste, often explicitly and deliberately referring to the great icons of the times. Baj's compositions were steeped in contemporarykitsch, which turned out to be a "gold mine" of images and the stimulus for an entire generation of artists.
The novelty came from the new visual panorama, both inside "domestic walls" and out-of-doors. Cars, road signs, television, all the "new world", everything can belong to the world of art, which itself is new. In this respect, Italian pop art takes the same ideological path as that of the international scene. The only thing that changes is the iconography and, in some cases, the presence of a more critical attitude toward it. Even in this case, the prototypes can be traced back to the works of Rotella and Baj, both far from neutral in their relationship with society. Yet this is not an exclusive element; there is a long line of artists, includingGianni Ruffi,Roberto Barni,Silvio Pasotti,Umberto Bignardi, andClaudio Cintoli, who take on reality as a toy, as a great pool of imagery from which to draw material with disenchantment and frivolity, questioning the traditional linguistic role models with a renewed spirit of "let me have fun" à laAldo Palazzeschi.[58]Pop art has never completely left the Italian art scene, undergoing numerous variations over time and constantly changing in form and content.[59] In the early 2000s, for example, the Sicilian artistArrigo Musti created Impopular Art. Recently, an undercurrent calledPop Symbolism, mainly consisting ofdigital art, has begun to spread, especially in theNorth.
InBelgium, pop art was represented to some extent by Paul Van Hoeydonck, whose sculptureFallen Astronaut was left on the Moon duringone of the Apollo missions, as well as by other notable pop artists. Internationally recognized artists such asMarcel Broodthaers ( 'vous êtes doll? "),Evelyne Axell andPanamarenko are indebted to the pop art movement; Broodthaers's great influence wasGeorge Segal. Another well-known artist,Roger Raveel, mounted a birdcage with a real live pigeon in one of his paintings. By the end of the 1960s and early 1970s, pop art references disappeared from the work of some of these artists when they started to adopt a more critical attitude towards America because of theVietnam War's increasingly gruesome character. Panamarenko, however, has retained the irony inherent in the pop art movement up to the present day.Evelyne Axell fromNamur was a prolific pop-artist in the 1964–1972 period.Axell was one of the first female pop artists, had been mentored byMagritte and her best-known painting isIce Cream.[60]
While there was no formal pop art movement in theNetherlands, there were a group of artists that spent time in New York during the early years of pop art, and drew inspiration from the international pop art movement. Representatives of Dutch pop art includeDaan van Golden,Gustave Asselbergs,Jacques Frenken,Jan Cremer,Wim T. Schippers, andWoody van Amen. They opposed the Dutchpetit bourgeois mentality by creating humorous works with a serious undertone. Examples of this nature includeSex O'Clock, by Woody van Amen, andCrucifix / Target, by Jacques Frenken.[61]
Russia arrived later to the movement, with pop-esque pieces emerging in the 1970s. This was likely a result of Russia's postwar political climate, which closely supervised artistic expression. Russia's version of pop art wasSoviet-themed and was referred to asSots Art. Compared to western pop art, it functioned as a counter-culture reaction against the state's approved art-movements. Afer the fall of the Berlin Wall, Russian pop art took on another form, epitomised byDmitri Vrubel and his paintingMy God, Help Me to Survive This Deadly Love.[62]
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^"Art: Pop Art – Cult of the Commonplace".Time. 3 May 1963.ISSN0040-781X. Retrieved7 July 2020.Robert Rauschenberg, 37, remembers an art teacher who 'taught me to think, "Why not?"' Since Rauschenberg is considered to be a pioneer in pop art, this is probably where the movement went off on its particular tangent. Why not make art out of old newspapers, bits of clothing, Coke bottles, books, skates, clocks?
^Sandler, Irving H.The New York School: The Painters and Sculptors of the Fifties, New York: Harper & Row, 1978.ISBN0-06-438505-1 pp. 174–195,Rauschenberg and Johns; pp. 103–111,Rivers and the gestural realists.
^Six painters and the object. Lawrence Alloway [curator, conceived and prepared this exhibition and the catalogue] (Computer file). 24 July 2009.OCLC360205683.
^Gayford, Martin (19 December 2002)."Still life at the check-out".The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group Ltd.Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved28 November 2012.
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