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Pompey's campaign against the pirates
Part of the wars of the Roman Republic
Bust ofPompey, copy of an original from 70–60 BC,Venice National Archaeological Museum
Date 67 BC Location Anatolia,Crete andAegean Sea Result Roman victory
Belligerents
Roman Republic andRhodes[1]	Cilician pirates
Commanders and leaders
Pompey
Strength
270[2]/500[3] ships 120,000 soldiers[2][3] 4,000[2]/5,000[3] horsemen	More than 1,000 ships[4]
Casualties and losses
	377[5]/800 ships captured[6] 10,000 dead[5] 20,000 captured[7] 120 cities captured[5]

Pompey's campaign against the pirates represented the final phase of theRoman Republic's efforts to combatpiracy in theeastern Mediterranean, which had been adversely affecting the eastern Roman provinces. This campaign was completed in approximately 40 days under the command ofPompey in 67 B.C.^[1][8]

The pirates no longer sailed in small groups, but in large hosts, and they had their own commanders, who increased their fame [by their exploits]. They despoiled and plundered first of all those who sailed, not leaving them alone even in winter [...]; then also those who were in the ports. And if one dared to challenge them on the open sea, he was usually defeated and destroyed. If he then managed to beat them, he was unable to capture them, because of the speed of their ships. So the pirates would go right back and loot and burn not only villages and farms, but whole towns, while others made them allies, so much so that they wintered there and set up bases for new operations, as if it were a friendly country.

Rome's first intervention in theAegean Sea in response to piracy occurred in 189 B.C., when Lucius Fabius Labeo, commander of the fleet, undertook a mission on the island ofCrete. However, he was unsuccessful in securing the return of Roman citizens who had been captured by pirates.

Subsequent Roman interventions took place in the seas aroundAsia Minor following the establishment of the firstprovince in the East,Asia (133—129 B.C.). In 102 B.C., the consulMarcus Antonius^[9] led a campaign in theCilician area. His reported successes against pirate populations culminated in the establishment of a second Roman province,Cilicia, between 101 and 100 B.C. The latter province^[10][11] initially consisted ofLycaonia,^[10]Pisidia,^[12]Pamphylia,^[12] southeasternPhrygia,^[12] and part of Cilicia Trachea, although its coastline remained partially surrounded with pirates.^[10]

During theFirst Mithridatic War, Roman commander Quintus Brucius Sura initially faced Metrophanes with a small army, engaging in a naval confrontation in which he succeeded in sinking a large ship.^[13] He subsequently conducted raids on the harbor ofSkiathos, a known pirate stronghold, where he executed slaves and mutilated freedmen who sought refuge there in 87 B.C.^[14] In the following years, from 86 to 85 BC,Sulla'slegatus,Lucullus, was sent to collect a fleet consisting of ships fromCyprus,Phoenicia,Rhodes andPamphylia. He faced multiple risks of capture by pirates while successfully ravaging much of their coastline.^[15]

At the conclusion of theFirst Mithridatic War, the province of Asia was left in a state of significant distress. The conflict had subjected its territories to persistent assaults by numerous pirate bands, which operated more like organized fleets than mere brigands.Mithridates VI had facilitated this increase in piracy during his campaign against the Roman coasts, anticipating that he would not maintain control over these regions for long. Consequently, the number of pirates surged, leading to continuous attacks on ports, fortresses, and cities.^[16] The pirates captured several cities, includingIassus,Samos, Clazomenae, and evenSamothrace, whereSulla was present at the time. It was reported that they plundered the temple on Samothrace, which housed treasures valued at 1,000Attic talents.^[17]Plutarch noted that the number of pirate ships exceeded 1,000, and the settlements they overtook totaled at least 400. They attacked and looted previously untouched locations, including sanctuaries such as those atClaros,Didyma, and Samothrace, as well as temples dedicated to Chthonia Terra at Hermione,Asclepius atEpidaurus, andPoseidon at Isthmus, Taenarum, andKalaureia. They also defiled temples ofApollo atActium andLefkada, and those ofHera at Samos, Argos, and Lacinium. Additionally, they engaged in unusual sacrifices atOlympus and celebrated secret rites, including those dedicated toMitra.^[4]

Between 78 B.C. and 75 B.C.,Publius Servilius Vatia served asproconsul ofCilicia,^[18][19] achieving significant victories against the pirates, who were equipped with fast, light warships, ultimately forcing them to retreat into theIsauric hinterland.^[20] Vatia, an energetic and resolute commander, swiftly captured the city ofOlympus inLycia from the pirate leader Zenicetus, who died defending it. He then advanced throughPamphylia, seizingPhaselis, and entered Cilicia, where he took the coastal fortress ofCorycus. After reclaiming all the coastal cities from the pirates, Vatia led his army across theTaurus Mountains, marking the first Roman incursion into the region, and aimed for theIsaurian capital ofIsaura. He achieved this by diverting a river to deprive the city of water, successfully capturing it. For his commendable leadership, he was acclaimed imperator by his troops and awarded the Isauricagnomen.^[21] Upon his return toRome, he celebrated histriumph in 74 B.C..^[22] It is also noted that the youngJulius Caesar participated in these campaigns as amilitary tribune.^[23] However, following these victories, new pirate raids targeted the city ofBrindisi and theEtruscan resulting in the abduction of women from noble Roman families and even a fewpraetors.^[18]

In 74 B.C.,Marcus Antonius Creticus, the father ofMark Antony, led an expedition to the seas aroundCrete, which ultimately ended in defeat. Following this,Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus undertook a new campaign, supported by the cities of Gortina (nowGortyn) and Polyrrhenion, which gradually subdued the main centers of anti-Roman resistance, including Cydonia,Knossos, Eleutera,Lappa, Lytto, and Hierapytna. This campaign faced challenges due to conflicts between Quintus Metellus and Lucius Octavius,^[24] a legate sent to the island byPompey, who held extraordinary command against the pirates under theGabinia law (lex Gabinia). After the successful conquest of Crete, Quintus Caecilius Metellus adopted the surname "Creticus."^[25][26] During this period, a notable incident involving the young Julius Caesar occurred. While en route to Rhodes in 74 B.C.—a destination favored by young Romans seeking to learn Greek culture and philosophy—^[27]he was kidnapped by pirates and taken to the island ofFarmakonisi, located among thesouthern Sporades south ofMiletus.^[28] When the pirates demanded a ransom oftalents, Caesar countered that he would pay fifty talents and sent his companions to Miletus to collect the necessary funds. He chose to remain on Farmakonisi with two slaves and his personal physician.^[29] During his thirty-eight days in captivity, Caesar composed numerous poems, which he presented to his captors.^[30] He interacted with the pirates in a manner that suggested he was in command, repeatedly promising that he would have them executed once he regained his freedom.^[31] When Caesar's companions returned with the ransom money, he escaped to theprovince of Asia, where Marcus Iuncus served as propraetor.^[32][33] Upon reaching Miletus, Caesar equipped ships and returned to Farmakonisi, easily capturing the pirates. He then transported them toBithynia, where Iuncus was managing the implementation ofNicomedes IV in his will. Although Caesar requested that the propraetor punish the pirates, Iuncus attempted to seize the ransom money for himself,^[34] and planned to resell the captives.^[35] Anticipating Iuncus's actions, Caesar set sail from Bithynia and executed the pirates himself, having them crucified after strangling them to spare them a prolonged death.^[36] According to pro-Cesarian sources, this act fulfilled his promise to the pirates during their captivity and allowed him to return the ransom money that his comrades had secured.^[37][38]

In 70 B.C.,PraetorCaecilius Metellus successfully confronted the pirates surrounding the seas of Sicily^[18][39] andCampania,^[40] who had even sackedGaeta,Ostia^[41] (in 69–68 B.C.) and had kidnapped the daughter ofMarcus Antonius atCape Miseno.

By 69 B.C., Pompey had become a favored figure among the Roman masses, although many members of the optimates were wary of his intentions. His prominence in the state was bolstered by two extraordinaryproconsular appointments, unprecedented in Roman history. In 67 BC, two years after serving as consul, Pompey was appointed commander of a special fleet tasked with conducting a campaign against the pirates surrounding theMediterranean Sea.^[42] TheCilician pirates, in particular, had disrupted trade and relations among various populations, leading to widespread conflict and significant repercussions for maritime commerce, including the vital grainsupply for the city of Rome.^[18] This situation had largely resulted from the Mithridatic Wars, which allowed these pirate bands to operate with impunity, plundering ports, cities, and merchant ships. Initially, the pirates, led by their commander Isodorus, restricted their activities to nearby waters, including those around Crete,Cyrene,Achaia, andCape Maleas. The immense wealth derived from their plundering earned these waters the moniker "Golden Sea", but they eventually expanded their range of operations.^[43]

Pompey's appointment was controversial from the outset. The conservative faction in theSenate expressed suspicion regarding his intentions and feared the consolidation of his power. The optimates made numerous attempts to block his nomination. Notably, Julius Caesar was among the few senators who supported Pompey's leadership from the beginning. The nomination was ultimately advanced by thetribune of the plebs,Aulus Gabinius, who proposed theLex Gabinia. This law granted Pompey command of the war against the Mediterranean pirates for a period of three years,^[44] conferring extensive powers that included absolute control over maritime operations and the coasts extending 400stadia inland (approximately 70 km.^[2][45] This authority placed him above any military leader in the eastern provinces.^[42] In addition to these powers, Pompey was authorized to select 15 legates from the Senate to oversee key maritime areas,^[46] draw funds from the public treasury and tax collectors as needed, and command a fleet of 200 fully armed and equipped ships, including soldiers and oarsmen.^[47]

According to the provisions set forth by the Senate, the army thatPompey could assemble for deployment throughout theMediterranean was initially expected to comprise 500 ships,^[48] 120,000 armed men (approximately equivalent to 30legions), and 5,000cavalry. These forces would be under the command of 24praetors and 2quaestors,^[3] with a total budget of 1,000Attic talents.^[2] Historical accounts indicate that Pompey sought assistance from the fleet of theRhodians as well.^[1] In practice, however, the forces available to Pompey amounted to no more than 270 ships (including hemiolias),^[2] 4,000 horsemen,^[2] and 120,000 infantry.^[2] These troops were commanded by either 14 legates, as reported byFlorus,^[49] or 25, according toAppian.^[2] The legates and their assigned areas of command included:

1. Gellius (consul in 72 BC), in charge of the Tuscan Sea;^[49][50]
2. Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus in the upper Adriatic Sea,^[50] in whose employ may have been Pompey's young sons (Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus andSextus Pompey) and not, as Florus would have it, the latter placed to guard the Egyptian Sea;^[49][51]
3. Plotius Varus on the Sea of Sicily;^[49][50]
4. Atilius in theLigurian Sea (according to Florus^[49]) or the Sardinian-Corsica Sea (according to Appian^[50]);
5. Pomponius inGallia Narbonensis;^[49][50]
6. Torquatus in theBalearic Sea;^[49][50]
7. Tiberius Nero in the Strait ofGades;^[49][50]
8. Lentulus Marcellinus on theLibyan-African Sea;^[49][50]
9. Terentius Varro on the lowerAdriatic toAcarnania;^[49][50]
10. Lucius Sisenna on thePeloponnese,Attica,Euboea,Thessaly,Macedonia andBoeotia;^[50]
11. Lucius Lollius on theupper Aegean and its islands to theHellespont;^[50]
12. Publius Piso overPontus Euxinus in the seas ofThrace andBithynia, north of thePropontis;^[50]
13. Metellus over theeastern Aegean, southernIonia,Lycia,Pamphylia,Cyprus, andPhoenicia;^[49][50]
14. Cepion over the Asiatic Sea;^[49]
15. Cato the Younger was to close thePropontis passages.^[49]

Plutarch reports that by the end of the First Mithridatic War, pirate ships had increased to over 1,000 and had sacked or occupied at least 400 cities.^[4] Below is howAppian describes them:

In the beginning [the pirates] roamed around with a couple of small boats, worrying the inhabitants of the area as [they were] thieves. As thewar went on, they became more and more numerous and built larger ships. Having big gains, they did not stop [engaging in piracy] when Mithridates was defeated and called for peace, and then withdrew [from the conquered territories]. Having lost both their livelihood and their country due to the war, having fallen into extreme misery, they used the sea instead of land-holding; at first using vessels such as thepinnaces and thehemiolias, then withbiremi andtriremi, which sailed in actual squads under pirate leaders who were like the generals of an army. They occupied an unfortified city. They tore down the walls of the others, captured after a regular siege, looting them. They then took the wealthiest citizens away to their hidden headquarters, holding them hostage and demanding their ransom. They scorned the appellation of thieves, describing their spoils as war prizes. They had chained artisans to do work for them, and continually bringing them materials of wood, brass and iron.

Fueled by their easy successes, the pirates chose not to abandon their way of life after the war; instead, they began to see themselves as kings, tyrants, and formidable armies. They believed that their unity rendered them invincible and thus embarked on constructing ships and weapons to bolster their strength. The pirates established their headquarters at Cragus inCilicia (modern-dayCoracesium), which they selected as their main anchorage and encampment. They fortified their position with towers and built fortresses, claiming control over various islands throughout theMediterranean. The rugged coastline of Cilicia, characterized by sheer cliffs and few safe mooring points, served as an ideal base for their operations. This geographical reality led to the collective label of "Cilicians" for the pirates, despite the fact that some hailed from regions such asSyria,Cyprus,Pamphylia,Pontus, and other eastern territories.^[52] Over time, their numbers swelled into the tens of thousands, spreading throughout the Mediterranean as far as thePillars of Hercules.^[18]

Pompey undertook the task of dividing the entireMediterranean Basin into at least 15 districts, each assigned a specific number of ships and a designated commander. With his forces distributed across the various sectors surrounded by pirate fleets, he began his campaign by pursuing the enemy in the western regions.^[50] He successfully tracked down their headquarters and captured a significant number of their vessels, ultimately laying siege to the coast ofCilicia, in the East. For the operations against the pirates in Cilicia, Pompey chose to lead the charge personally with his 60 best ships. Initially, he focused on the western pirate strongholds, completely subduing them within just forty days.^[50] This successful campaign encompassed theTyrrhenian Sea,Libyan Sea,Sea of Sardinia, Sea of Corsica, and the of Sicily, a feat accomplished through his relentless energy and the dedication of his lieutenants.^[50][53] After concluding these initial operations, Pompey made a brief stop in Rome before heading toBrindisi. He then turned his attention to the eastern pirate strongholds, which were significantly larger in terms of numbers, ships, and armaments, indicating a more formidable challenge ahead.^[50]

Some of the bands of pirates who were still free but asked for forgiveness were treated humanely [by Pompey], so much so that after their ships were seized and people handed over, no further harm was done to them; the others then had hope of being forgiven, tried to escape from the other commanders, and went to Pompey with their wives and children, surrendering to him. All these were spared, and through their help all those who were still free in their hiding places were tracked down, seized, and punished, as they knew they had committed unforgivable crimes.

The most numerous and powerful bands of pirates had sought refuge with their families and treasures in fortified fortresses and citadels near the Taurus Mountains. They awaited Pompey's impending attack near the promontory ofCoracesium inCilicia (modernAlanya), where they initially faced defeat in battle before being besieged. Ultimately, the pirates opted to send ambassadors to the Roman proconsul, leading to their surrender along with the rebellious cities and islands under their control, which had often proven difficult to capture.^[50][54] The campaign against piracy concluded in less than three months, resulting in the surrender of all pirate ships—71 captured and 306 surrendered—some of which had brass bows.^[5] Over 20,000 pirates were taken prisoner, with an additional 10,000 killed during the conflict.^[5] Rather than executing the captured pirates, Pompey chose to detain them, recognizing that allowing them to go free could lead to the reformation of disorganized and belligerent bands, posing a significant threat for the future.^[5][7][55]

Reflecting, then, that by nature man is not and does not become a savage or asocial creature, but is transformed by the unnatural practice of vice; where he can be softened by new customs through the change of place and life, then, if even ferocious beasts can extinguish their ferocious and savage way of being when these live in a gentler way of life, [Pompey] decided to transfer the men from the sea to the land, allowing them to live in a gentler way of life, in cities and cultivating the land. Some of them, therefore, were welcomed and integrated into the small, semi-deserted cities of Cilicia, to which he added additional territories; after rebuilding the city ofSoli,^[56] which had recently been devastated byTigrane,king of Armenia, Pompey settled many of them there. For most of them, however, he gave as his residence the city of Dyme inAchaia,^[5] which was then devoid of men and had much good land.

Pompey resettled some of the captured pirates in the cities of Mallus,Adana, and Epiphanea.^[5] Meanwhile,Metellus was engaged in eradicating piracy in Crete, a task he had undertaken before Pompey was assigned command of the anti-piracy campaign. Metellus was related to the Metellus who had previously served alongside Pompey inHispania. Crete was considered a significant second base for piracy, following Cilicia in importance. Although Metellus had killed many pirates, he had yet to completely eliminate their presence.^[57] According toPlutarch, the surviving pirates under siege by Roman forces sent messages appealing to Pompey for assistance. Accepting their invitation, Pompey instructed Metellus to suspend the siege and dispatched one of his legates, Lucius Octavius, to engage with the pirates. Octavius entered three of the pirates' strongholds and fought alongside them, which resulted in Pompey appearing vulnerable and envious of Metellus’s accomplishments.^[58] However, Metellus did not yield to this rivalry. He ultimately succeeded in capturing and punishing the remaining pirates, even sending Octavius back after having insulted and beaten him in front of thearmy.^[59]

Pompey's forces successfully purged the entireMediterranean Basin of pirates, reclaiming key territories including the island of Crete, the coasts ofLycia,Pamphylia, andCilicia. His military efforts reflected effective discipline and organizational skills, culminating in the control of Cilicia, which had been a center of piracy for over forty years. Following these actions, Tarsus was established as the capital of the newly formedRoman province, and Pompey oversaw the foundation of 39 new cities.^[6] The rapid pace of his campaign highlighted his talents as a naval general with strong logistical capabilities.

Subsequently, Pompey was commissioned to lead a new military campaign againstMithridates VI, king of Pontus, in the East.^[60] This command effectively tasked Pompey with the conquest and reorganization of the entire eastern Mediterranean, further solidifying his influence. Supported by Caesar, Pompey conducted his campaigns from 65 BC to 62 BC with remarkable military prowess and administrative efficiency, resulting in theannexation of much of Asia under firm Roman control.

In addition to defeating Mithridates, Pompey also vanquishedTigranes the Great,king of Armenia, with whom he negotiated treaties. He conqueredSyria, then under the rule ofAntiochus XIII, and swiftly advanced towardsJerusalem, which he occupied in a short period. Pompey implemented a comprehensive reorganization of the newly acquired eastern provinces, taking into account the geographical and political dynamics necessary for establishing a Roman frontier in the East. Through his campaigns, which included victories overMithridates,Tigranes II, andAntiochus XIII)Pontus and Syria became Roman provinces, and Jerusalem was brought under Roman control.

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