Thepomegranate (Punica granatum) is afruit-bearing,deciduous shrub in the familyLythraceae, subfamilyPunicoideae, that grows between 5 and 10 m (16 and 33 ft) tall. Rich in symbolic and mythological associations in many cultures, it is thought to have originated fromIran before being introduced and exported to other parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe, though also considered to be native to Indian Subcontinent (particularly Northern India) and Afghanistan.[4][5][6][7][8]
The name "pomegranate" derives frommedieval Latinpōmum, apple andgrānātum, seeded.[11] Possibly stemming from the old French word for the fruit,pomme-grenade, the pomegranate was known in early English as apple of Granada—a term that today survives only in heraldicblazons. This is afolk etymology, confusing the Latingranatus with the name of the Spanish city ofGranada, which is derived from an unrelatedArabic word.[12]
Garnet derives from Old Frenchgrenat bymetathesis, from Medieval Latingranatum as used in a different meaning "of a dark red color". This derivation may have originated frompomum granatum, describing the color of pomegranate pulp, or fromgranum, referring to red dye,cochineal.[13]
The modern French term for pomegranate,grenade, has given its name to the militarygrenade.[14]
Pomegranates were colloquially called wineapples or wine-apples in Ireland, although this term has fallen out of use. It still persists at theMoore Street open-air market in central Dublin.[15][16]
The pomegranate is ashrub or small tree growing 5 to 10 m (16 to 33 ft) high, with multiple spiny branches. It is long-lived, with some specimens in France surviving for 200 years.[4]P. granatumleaves are opposite or subopposite, glossy, narrow oblong, entire, 3–7 cm (1+1⁄4–2+3⁄4 in) long, and2 cm (3⁄4 in) broad. Theflowers are bright red and3 cm (1+1⁄4 in) in diameter, with three to seven petals.[4] Some fruitless varieties are grown for the flowers alone.[17]
The pomegranate fruithusk is red-purple with an outer, hardpericarp, and an inner, spongymesocarp (white "albedo"), which comprises the fruit's inner wall where seeds attach.[18] Membranes of the mesocarp are organized as nonsymmetric chambers that contain seeds which are embedded without attachment to the mesocarp.[18] Pomegranate seeds are characterized by havingsarcotesta, thick fleshy seed coats derived from the integuments or outer layers of the ovule'sepidermal cells.[19][20] The number of seeds in a pomegranate can vary from 200 to about 1,400.[21]
Botanically, thefruit is aberry with edible seeds and pulp produced from theovary of a single flower.[19] The fruit is intermediate in size between alemon and agrapefruit,5–12 cm (2–4+1⁄2 in) in diameter with a rounded shape and thick, reddish husk.[4]
In mature fruits, the juice obtained by compressing the seeds yields a tart flavor due to lowpH (4.4) and high contents ofpolyphenols,[22] which may cause a red indelible stain on fabrics.[23] Thepigmentation of pomegranate juice primarily results from the presence ofanthocyanins andellagitannins.[22][24]
P. granatum is grown for its vegetable crop, and asornamental trees and shrubs in parks and gardens. Mature specimens can develop sculptural twisted bark, multiple trunks, and a distinctive overall form. Pomegranates aredrought-tolerant, and can be grown in dry areas with either a Mediterranean winter rainfall climate or in summer rainfall climates. In wetter areas, they can be prone to root decay fromfungal diseases. They can tolerate moderatefrost, down to about −12 °C (10 °F).[25]
P. granatum reproduces sexually in nature, but can be propagated usingasexual reproduction. Propagation methods includelayering, hardwood cuttings, softwood cuttings, andtissue culture. Required conditions for rooting cuttings include warm temperatures within the 18–29 °C (65–85 °F) range and a semihumid environment.Rooting hormone increases rooting success rate, but is not required.[27] Grafting is possible but impractical and tends to yield low success rates.
The only other species in the genusPunica is theSocotran pomegranate (P. protopunica), which isendemic to theSocotran archipelago of four islands located in the Arabian Sea, the largest island of which is also known as Socotra. The territory is part of Yemen. It differs in having pink (not red) flowers and smaller, less sweet fruit.[30]
P. granatum has more than 500 namedcultivars, but has considerable synonymy in which the samegenotype is named differently across regions of the world.[18]
Several characteristics between pomegranate genotypes vary for identification, consumer preference, preferred use, andmarketing, the most important of which are fruit size,exocarp color (ranging from yellow to purple, with pink and red most common), seed-coat color (ranging from white to red), the hardness of seed, maturity, juice content and its acidity, sweetness, andastringency.[18]
The leading producers globally are India and China, followed by Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan, the US, Iraq, Pakistan, Syria, and Spain.[31] During 2019, Chile, Peru, Egypt, Israel, India, and Turkey supplied pomegranates to theEuropean market.[32] Chile was the main supplier to the United States market, which has a limited supply fromSouthern California.[32] China was self-sufficient for its pomegranate supply in 2019, while otherSouth Asia markets were supplied mainly by India.[32] Pomegranate production and exports inSouth Africa competed with South American shipments in 2012–2018, with export destinations including Europe, theMiddle East, theUnited Kingdom, and Russia.[33] South Africa imports pomegranates mainly from Israel.[33]
Pomegranate, late SouthernSong dynasty or earlyYuan dynasty circa 1200–1340 (Los Angeles County Museum of Art)
The pomegranate is native to a region from Iran to northern India.[4] Pomegranates have been cultivated throughout the Middle East, India, and the Mediterranean region for several millennia, and it is also cultivated in theCentral Valley of California and in Arizona.[4][34][35] Pomegranates may have been domesticated as early as the fifth millennium BC, as they were one of the first fruit trees to be domesticated in the eastern Mediterranean region.[36]
Waterlogged pomegranate remains have been identified at the circa 14th century BCUluburun shipwreck off the coast of Turkey.[40] Other goods on the ship include perfume,ivory and gold jewelry, suggesting that pomegranates at this time may have been considered a luxury good.[41] Other archaeological finds of pomegranate remains from the LateBronze Age have been found primarily in elite residences, supporting this inference.[40] During the Iron Age, the pomegranate was a frequent decorative motif inIsraelite material culture, appearing on ancient artifacts.[37]
It is also extensively grown in southern China and Southeast Asia, whether originally spread along theSilk Road route or brought by sea traders.Kandahar is famous in Afghanistan for its high-quality pomegranates.[42]
Although not native to Korea or Japan, the pomegranate is widely grown there, and many cultivars have been developed. It is widely used forbonsai because of its flowers and for the unusual twisted bark the older specimens can attain.[citation needed] The term "balaustine" (Latin:balaustinus) is also used for a pomegranate-red color.[43]
Coat of arms of Spain with a pomegranate at the bottom, symbolizing thekingdom of Granada
Spanish colonists later introduced the fruit to theCaribbean and America (Spanish America). However, in theEnglish colonies, it was less at home: "Don't use the pomegranate inhospitably, a stranger that has come so far to pay his respects to thee," English QuakerPeter Collinson wrote to the botanizingJohn Bartram inPhiladelphia, 1762. "Plant it against the side of thy house, nail it close to the wall. In this manner it thrives wonderfully with us, and flowers beautifully, and bears fruit this hot year. I have twenty-four on one tree...Doctor Fothergill says, of all trees this is mostsalutiferous to mankind."[44]
The pomegranate had been introduced as an exotic to England the previous century, byJohn Tradescant the Elder, but the disappointment that it did not set fruit there led to its repeated introduction to the American colonies, even New England. It succeeded in the South: Bartram received a barrel of pomegranates and oranges from a correspondent inCharleston, South Carolina, 1764. John Bartram partook of "delitious" pomegranates withNoble Jones atWormsloe Plantation, nearSavannah, Georgia, in September 1765.Thomas Jefferson planted pomegranates atMonticello in 1771; he had them fromGeorge Wythe ofWilliamsburg.[45]
Pomegranate seeds are edible raw.A stall selling pomegranate juice inXi'an, China
Pomegranate juice can besweet orsour, but most fruits are moderate in taste, with sour notes from the acidicellagitannins contained in the juice.[24] Pomegranate juice has long been a common drink in Europe and the Middle East, and is distributed worldwide.[46] Pomegranate juice is also used as a cooking ingredient. In Syria, it is added to intensify the flavor of some dishes such askibbeh safarjaliyeh.
Grenadine syrup, commonly used incocktails, originally consisted of thickened and sweetened pomegranate juice,[47] but today is typically a syrup made just of sugar and commercially produced natural and artificial flavors, preservatives, and food coloring, or using substitute fruits (such as berries).
A bowl ofash-e anar, an Iranian soup made with pomegranate juice
Before tomatoes (a New World fruit) arrived in the Middle East, pomegranate juice,pomegranate molasses, andvinegar were widely used in many Iranian foods; this mixture is still found in traditional recipes such asfesenjān, a thick sauce made from pomegranate juice and groundwalnuts, usually spooned overduck or otherpoultry and rice, and inash-e anar (pomegranate soup).[48][49]
Pomegranate seeds are used as a spice known asanar dana (fromPersian:anar + dana, pomegranate + seed), most notably in Indian andPakistani cuisine. Dried whole seeds can often be obtained in ethnic Indian markets. These seeds are separated from the flesh, dried for 10–15 days, and used as an acidic agent forchutney andcurry preparation. Groundanardana is also used, which results in deeper flavoring in dishes and prevents the seeds from getting stuck in teeth. Seeds of the wild pomegranate variety known asdaru from the Himalayas are considered high-quality sources for this spice.
Dried pomegranate seeds, found in some natural specialty food markets, still contain some residual water, maintaining a natural sweet and tart flavor. Dried seeds can be used in several culinary applications, such astrail mix or granola bars, or as a topping for salad, yogurt, or ice cream.
Turkish lamb chops with candiedfigs and herbed mashedpotatoes, garnished with pomegranate
In Turkey, pomegranate sauce (Turkish:nar ekşisi) is used as a salad dressing, to marinate meat, or simply to drink straight. Pomegranate seeds are also used in salads and sometimes as garnish for desserts such asgüllaç.[50] Pomegranate syrup, also called pomegranate molasses, is used inmuhammara, a roastedred pepper, walnut, andgarlic spread popular inSyria and Turkey.[51]
In Greece, pomegranate is used in many recipes, includingkollivozoumi, a creamy broth made from boiled wheat, pomegranates, andraisins,legume salad with wheat and pomegranate, traditional Middle Eastern lambkebabs with pomegranate glaze, pomegranateeggplant relish, andavocado-pomegranate dip. Pomegranate is also made into aliqueur, and as a popularfruit confectionery used asice cream topping, mixed withyogurt, or spread asjam on toast.
In Mexico, pomegranate seeds are commonly used to adorn the traditional dishchiles en nogada, representing the red of theMexican flag in the dish which evokes the green (poblano pepper), white (nogada sauce) and red (pomegranate seeds)[52] tricolor.
The edible portion of raw pomegranate is 78% water, 19%carbohydrates, 2%protein, and 1%fat (table). A 100 g (3.5 oz) serving of pomegranate sarcotesta provides 11% of theDaily Value (DV) forvitamin C, 14% DV forvitamin K, and 10% DV forfolate (table), while the seeds are a rich source ofdietary fiber (20% DV).[56]
Despite limited research data, manufacturers and marketers of pomegranate juice have liberally used results from preliminary research to promote products.[63] In February 2010, the FDA issued awarning letter to one such manufacturer,POM Wonderful, for using published literature to make illegal claims of unproven antidisease effects.[64][65][66]
In May 2016, the USFederal Trade Commission declared that POM Wonderful could not make health claims in its advertising, followed by aUS Supreme Court ruling that declined a request by POM Wonderful to review the court ruling, upholding the FTC decision.[67][68]
The pomegranate was an important fruit in the culture and rituals of ancientAssyria. TheMesopotamian goddess of healing,Gula, was commonly depicted with a pomegranate in her hand, symbolizing it as a means of protection and healing from sickness.[citation needed] Pomegranates were commonly used in ceremonies to promote agriculture and human reproduction, especially the seeds. It was believed that eating pomegranates would grant a long and prosperous life, as well as nourishment in the afterlife, due to the belief of the seeds representing eternal life.
Pomegranate, known asanār inPersian, is a symbol of fertility, blessing, and favor in Iranian belief. Pomegranates are sacred in theZoroastrian religion and Zoroastrians used it in their religious rituals. The yellow color of the pomegranate stamens symbolizes the sun and light.[citation needed]
The pomegranate tree has been one of the most sacred and holy plants in Iran and is believed to be grown from places where the blood of Siavash (the legendary Iranian character who is known for his innocence) was spilled. It has been mentioned in Iranian Pahlavi scripts as a fruit of heaven. It is also believed that the invulnerability of Esfandiar (Iranian legend) was related to this sacred fruit. The Zoroastrians of Iran believe that pomegranate is a blessed fruit as it is served in their festivals like Mehregan and Nowruz, and especially in their wedding ceremonies to wish for the newly married couple to have healthy children in the future. They also used to plant a pomegranate tree in their fire temples to use its leaves in their ceremonies.[71]
During the Iranian tradition, Yalda Night, people come together on winter solstice and eat pomegranate fruit to celebrate the victory of light over darkness.[72]
In a relief fromPersepolis,Darius the Great is holding a pomegranate flower with two buds. This Achaemenid king is accepting the representatives of all the subordinate lands of Greater Iran to his presence, while holding a large flower in his hand as a sign of peace and friendship.[citation needed]
Ancient Roman statue of Aegyptus, personification of the province of Egypt holding a pomegranate
Ancient Egyptians regarded the pomegranate as a symbol of prosperity and ambition. It was referred to by theSemitic names ofjnhm ornhm.[73] According to theEbers Papyrus, one of the oldest medical writings from around 1500 BC, Egyptians used the pomegranate for treatment oftapeworm and other infections.[74]
The Greeks were familiar with the fruit far before it was introduced to Rome viaCarthage, and it figures in multiple myths and artworks.[81] InAncient Greek mythology, the pomegranate was known as the "fruit of the dead", and believed to have sprung from the blood ofAdonis.[74][82]
The myth ofPersephone, the goddess of theunderworld, prominently features her consumption of pomegranate seeds, requiring her to spend a certain number of months in the underworld every year. The number of seeds and therefore months vary. During the months that Persephone sits on the throne of the underworld beside her husbandHades, her motherDemeter mourns and no longer gives fertility to the earth. This was an ancient Greek explanation for theseasons.[83]
In another Greek myth, a girl namedSide ("pomegranate") killed herself on her mother's grave to avoid suffering rape at the hands of her own fatherIctinus. Her blood transformed into a pomegranate tree.[85] In a different myth, aBoeotian woman namedSide was cast into the Underworld byHera, with the pomegranate symbolising her descent.[86]
In the fifth century BC,Polycleitus took ivory and gold to sculpt the seatedArgive Hera in her temple. She held a scepter in one hand and offered a pomegranate, like a "royalorb", in the other.[87] "About the pomegranate I must say nothing," whispered the travellerPausanias in the second century, "for its story is somewhat of a holy mystery".[87] The pomegranate has a calyx shaped like a crown. In Jewish tradition, it has been seen as the original "design" for the proper crown.[88]
Within theHeraion at the mouth of the Sele, nearPaestum,Magna Graecia, is a chapel devoted to theMadonna del Granato, "Our Lady of the Pomegranate", "who by virtue of her epithet and the attribute of a pomegranate must be the Christian successor of the ancient Greek goddess Hera", observes the excavator of theHeraion of Samos, Helmut Kyrieleis.[89]
In modern times, the pomegranate still holds strong symbolic meanings for the Greeks. When one buys a new home, it is conventional for a house guest to bring as a first gift a pomegranate, which is placed under/near theikonostasi (home altar) of the house, as a symbol of abundance, fertility, and good luck. When Greeks commemorate their dead, they makekollyva as offerings, which consist of boiled wheat, mixed with sugar and decorated with pomegranate. Pomegranate decorations for the home are very common in Greece and sold in most home goods stores.[90]
Pomegranates are one of theSeven Species (Hebrew:שבעת המינים,Shiv'at Ha-Minim) of fruits and grains enumerated in theHebrew Bible (Deuteronomy 8:8) as special products of theLand of Israel.[37] TheSong of Songs (also known as theSong of Solomon) mentions the pomegranate six times,[91] often as a symbol of beauty and fertility. In one verse, the female lover is described: Your lips are like a crimson thread, and your mouth is lovely. Your cheeks are like halves of a pomegranate behind your veil" (Song of Solomon 4:3).[37]
Some Jewish scholars believe the pomegranate was theforbidden fruit in theGarden of Eden, as described in the Book of Genesis.[92] TheBook of Exodus[93] describes theme'il ("robe of theephod") worn by theHebrew high priest as having pomegranates embroidered on the hem, alternating with golden bells, which could be heard as the high priest entered and left theHoly of Holies. In the Book of Numbers, pomegranates are listed among the fruits that thescouts brought toMoses to demonstrate the fertility of the "Promised Land".[94][37] According to theBooks of Kings,[95] the capitals of the two pillars (Jachin and Boaz) that stood in front ofSolomon's Temple inJerusalem were engraved with pomegranates. Solomon is said to have designed his coronet based on the pomegranate's "crown" (calyx).[88]
JewishTorah ornaments in the shape of pomegranates
The handles ofTorah scrolls, when not in use, are sometimes covered with decorative silver globes similar in shape to pomegranates (Torah rimmonim).[96]
The pomegranate is said to have 613 seeds representing the613 commandments of theTorah,[91] but it is a misconception. There is no clear source for this claim, although it is used as a metaphor in theTalmud for numerous good deeds.[97]
In the earliest incontrovertible appearance of Christ in a mosaic, a fourth-century floor mosaic fromHinton St Mary, Dorset, now in theBritish Museum, the bust of Christ and thechi rho are flanked by pomegranates.[98]Pomegranates continue to be a motif often found inChristian religious decoration. They are often woven into the fabric ofvestments andliturgical hangings or wrought in metalwork. Pomegranates figure in many religious paintings by the likes ofSandro Botticelli andLeonardo da Vinci, often in the hands of theVirgin Mary or theinfant Jesus. The fruit, broken or bursting open, is a symbol of the fullness of Jesus'suffering andresurrection.[92]
The pomegranate is one of the main fruits inArmenian culture (alongsideapricots andgrapes). Its juice is used with Armenian food and wine.[how?] The pomegranate is a symbol in Armenia, representing fertility, abundance, and marriage.[100] It is also a semireligious icon. For example, the fruit played an integral role in a wedding custom widely practiced in ancient Armenia; a bride was given a pomegranate fruit, which she threw against a wall, breaking it into pieces. Scattered pomegranate seeds ensured the bride's future children.[101]
Introduced to China during theHan dynasty (206BC – 220AD), the pomegranate (Chinese:石榴;pinyin:shíliu), in older times, was considered an emblem of fertility and numerous progeny. Pictures of the ripe fruit with the seeds bursting forth were often hung in homes to bestow fertility and bless the dwelling with numerous offspring, an important facet of traditionalChinese culture.[104]
In some Hindu traditions, the pomegranate (Sanskrit:dāḍima[106]) symbolizes prosperity and fertility, and is associated with bothBhumi (the earth goddess) andGanesha (the one fond of the many-seeded fruit).[107][108]
The pomegranate is an important fruit and symbol in Kurdish culture. It is accepted as a symbol of abundance and a sacred fruit of ancient Kurdish religions. Pomegranate is used as a symbol of abundance in Kurdish carpets.[109]
In Palestinian culture, the pomegranate symbolizes fertility and is deeply embedded in folklore and traditions. A popular saying states, "The pomegranate fills the heart with faith," and it is believed that every seed should be eaten, as one [pomegranate seed] may have come from paradise.[110]
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^Schubert, Shay Yehoshua; Lansky, Ephraim Philip; Neeman, Ishak (July 1999). "Antioxidant and eicosanoid enzyme inhibition properties of pomegranate seed oil and fermented juice flavonoids".Journal of Ethnopharmacology.66 (1):11–17.doi:10.1016/S0378-8741(98)00222-0.PMID10432202.
^"Statement of FTC Chairwoman Edith Ramirez Regarding Supreme Court's Decision Not to Review POM Wonderful Case". Bureau of Consumer Protection, US Federal Trade Commission. 2 May 2016.Archived from the original on 18 May 2017. Retrieved18 July 2017.I am pleased that the POM Wonderful case has been brought to a successful conclusion. The outcome of this case makes clear that companies like POM making serious health claims about food and nutritional supplement products must have rigorous scientific evidence to back them up. Consumers deserve no less.
^Turkish OdysseyPerge-Aspendus-Side-AlanyaArchived 14 November 2006 at theWayback Machine "Side was founded by Aeolians of the Aegean region. The history of the town extends back to the 7C BC. "Side" meant "pomegranate" in the local language. Until the Roman Imperial period, pomegranate was the symbol used on the coins of Side. "
^"Numismatica Ars Classica - Auction 96 Lot 1114".NumisBids.com. Archived fromthe original on 1 March 2023. Retrieved1 March 2023.Pamphylia, Side. Stater, circa 460-430 BC, ...Pomegranate within guilloche border. Rev. Head of Athena r., wearing Corinthian helmet, hair in a queue. All within incuse square.
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