Polyphony (/pəˈlɪfəni/pə-LIF-ə-nee) is a type of musicaltexture consisting of two or more simultaneous lines of independentmelody, as opposed to a musical texture with just one voice (monophony) or a texture with one dominant melodic voice accompanied bychords (homophony).
Within the context of the Western musical tradition, the termpolyphony is usually used to refer tomusic of the lateMiddle Ages andRenaissance.Baroque forms such asfugue, which might be called polyphonic, are usually described instead ascontrapuntal. Also, as opposed to thespecies terminology of counterpoint,[1] polyphony was generally either "pitch-against-pitch" / "point-against-point" or "sustained-pitch" in one part withmelismas of varying lengths in another.[2] In all cases the conception was probably whatMargaret Bent (1999) calls "dyadic counterpoint",[3] with each part being written generally against one other part, with all parts modified if needed in the end. This point-against-point conception is opposed to "successive composition", where voices were written in an order with each new voice fitting into the whole so far constructed, which was previously assumed.
The termpolyphony is also sometimes used more broadly, to describe any musical texture that is not monophonic. Such a perspective considers homophony as a sub-type of polyphony.[4]
Traditional (non-professional) polyphony has a wide, if uneven, distribution among the peoples of the world.[5] Most polyphonic regions of the world are insub-Saharan Africa, Europe and Oceania. Currently there are two contradictory approaches to the problem of the origins of vocal polyphony: the Cultural Model, and the Evolutionary Model.[6] According to the Cultural Model, the origins of polyphony are connected to the development of human musical culture; polyphony came as the natural development of the primordial monophonic singing; therefore polyphonic traditions are bound to gradually replace monophonic traditions.[7] According to the Evolutionary Model, the origins of polyphonic singing are much deeper, and are connected to the earlier stages of human evolution; polyphony was an important part of a defence system of the hominids, and traditions of polyphony are gradually disappearing all over the world.[8]: 198–210
European polyphony rose out ofmelismaticorganum, the earliest harmonization of the chant. During the 12th century, composers such asLéonin andPérotin developed theorganum that had been introduced centuries earlier, and also added a third and fourth voice to the now homophonic chant. In the 13th century, the chant-based tenor was becoming altered, fragmented, and hidden beneath secular tunes, obscuring the sacred texts as composers continued to develop polyphonic techniques. The lyrics of love poems might be sung above sacred texts in the form of atrope, or the sacred text might be placed within a familiar secular melody. The oldest surviving piece of six-part music is the EnglishrotaSumer is icumen in (c. 1240).[11]
European polyphony rose prior to, and during the period of theWestern Schism.Avignon, the seat ofpopes and thenantipopes, was a vigorous center of secular music-making, much of which influenced sacred polyphony.[12]
The notion of secular and sacred music merging in the papal court also offended some medieval ears. It gave church music more of a jocular performance quality supplanting the solemnity of worship they were accustomed to. The use of and attitude toward polyphony varied widely in the Avignon court from the beginning to the end of its religious importance in the 14th century.
Harmony was considered frivolous, impious, lascivious, and an obstruction to the audibility of the words. Instruments, as well as certain modes, were actually forbidden in the church because of their association with secular music and pagan rites. After banishing polyphony from the Liturgy in 1322,Pope John XXII warned against the unbecoming elements of this musical innovation in his 1324bullDocta sanctorum patrum.[13] In contrastPope Clement VI indulged in it.
The oldest extant polyphonic setting of themass attributable to one composer isGuillaume de Machaut'sMesse de Nostre Dame, dated to 1364, during the pontificate ofPope Urban V. TheSecond Vatican Council said Gregorian chant should be the focus of liturgical services, without excluding other forms of sacred music, including polyphony.[14]
English Protestantwest gallery music included polyphonic multi-melodic harmony, includingfuguing tunes, by the mid-18th century. This tradition passed with emigrants to North America, where it was proliferated in tunebooks, includingshape-note books likeThe Southern Harmony andThe Sacred Harp. While this style of singing has largely disappeared from British and North American sacred music, it survived in the ruralSouthern United States, until it again began to grow a following throughout the United States and even in places such as the United Kingdom, Germany, Poland, and Australia, among others.[16][17][18][19]
Balkan drone music is described as polyphonic due to Balkan musicians using a literal translation of the Greekpolyphōnos ('many voices'). In terms of Western classical music, it is not strictly polyphonic, due to the drone parts having no melodic role, and can better be described asmultipart.[23]
Albanian polyphonic singing can be divided into two major stylistic groups as performed by the Tosks and Labs of southern Albania. The drone is performed in two ways: among the Tosks, it is always continuous and sung on the syllable 'e', using staggered breathing; while among the Labs, the drone is sometimes sung as a rhythmic tone, performed to the text of the song. It can be differentiated between two-, three- and four-voice polyphony.
InAromanian music, polyphony is common, and polyphonic music follows a set of common rules.[26]
The French island ofCorsica has a unique style of music calledPaghjella [fr] that is known for its polyphony. Traditionally, Paghjella contains a staggered entrance and continues with the three singers carrying independent melodies. This music tends to contain muchmelisma and is sung in a nasal temperament. Additionally, many paghjella songs contain apicardy third. After paghjella's revival in the 1970s, it mutated. In the 1980s it had moved away from some of its more traditional features as it became much more heavily produced and tailored towards western tastes. There were now four singers, significantly less melisma, it was much more structured, and it exemplified more homophony. To the people of Corsica, the polyphony of paghjella represented freedom; it had been a source of cultural pride in Corsica and many felt that this movement away from the polyphonic style meant a movement away from paghjella's cultural ties. This resulted in a transition in the 1990s. Paghjella again had a strong polyphonic style and a less structured meter.[29][30]
Polyphony in theRepublic of Georgia is arguably the oldest polyphony in the Christian world. Georgian polyphony is traditionally sung in three parts with strong dissonances, parallel fifths, and a unique tuning system based on perfect fifths.[31]Georgian polyphonic singing has been proclaimed by UNESCO an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. Popular singing has a highly valued place in Georgian culture. There are three types of polyphony in Georgia: complex polyphony, which is common in Svaneti; polyphonic dialogue over a bass background, prevalent in the Kakheti region in Eastern Georgia; and contrasted polyphony with three partially improvised sung parts, characteristic of western Georgia. The Chakrulo song, which is sung at ceremonies and festivals and belongs to the first category, is distinguished by its use of metaphor and its yodel, the krimanchuli and a "cockerel’s crow", performed by a male falsetto singer. Some of these songs are linked to the cult of the grapevine and many date back to the eighth century. The songs traditionally pervaded all areas of everyday life, ranging from work in the fields (the Naduri, which incorporates the sounds of physical effort into the music) to songs to curing of illnesses and to Christmas Carols (Alilo). Byzantine liturgical hymns also incorporated the Georgian polyphonic tradition to such an extent that they became a significant expression of it.[32]
Chechen and Ingush traditional music can be defined by their tradition of vocal polyphony. Chechen and Ingush polyphony is based on a drone and is mostly three-part, unlike most other north Caucasian traditions' two-part polyphony. The middle part carries the main melody accompanied by a double drone, holding the interval of a fifth around the melody. Intervals and chords are often dissonances (sevenths, seconds, fourths), and traditional Chechen and Ingush songs use sharper dissonances than other North Caucasian traditions. The specific cadence of a final, dissonant three-part chord, consisting of fourth and the second on top (c-f-g), is almost unique. (Only in western Georgia do a few songs finish on the same dissonant c-f-g chord.)[8]: 60–61
Parts ofOceania maintain rich polyphonic traditions. The peoples ofNew Guinea Highlands including theMoni,Dani, andYali use vocal polyphony, as do the people ofManus Island. Many of these styles aredrone-based or feature close, secondal harmonies dissonant to western ears.Guadalcanal and theSolomon Islands are host to instrumental polyphony, in the form of bamboopanpipe ensembles.[33][34] Europeans were surprised to find drone-based anddissonant polyphonic singing in Polynesia. Polynesian traditions were then influenced by Western choral church music, which broughtcounterpoint into Polynesian musical practice.[35][36]
NumerousSub-Saharan African music traditions host polyphonic singing, typically moving inparallel motion.[37] While theMaasai people traditionally sing with drone polyphony, other East African groups use more elaborate techniques. TheDorze people, for example, sing with as many as six parts, and theWagogo use counterpoint.[37] The music ofAfrican Pygmies (e.g. that of theAka people) is typicallyostinato and contrapuntal, featuringyodeling. Other Central African peoples tend to sing with parallel lines rather than counterpoint.[38] InBurundi, rural women greet each other withakazehe, a two-part interlocking vocal rhythm.[39] The singing of theSan people, like that of the pygmies, features melodic repetition, yodeling, and counterpoint. The singing of neighboringBantu peoples, like theZulu, is more typically parallel.[38] The peoples of tropicalWest Africa traditionally use parallel harmonies rather than counterpoint.[40]
^Hendrik van der Werf (1997). "Early Western polyphony", Companion to Medieval & Renaissance Music. Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-816540-4.
^Margaret Bent (1999). "The Grammar of Early Music: Preconditions for Analysis",Tonal Structures of Early Music. New York: Garland Publishing.ISBN0-8153-2388-3.
^DeVoto, Mark (2015)."Polyphony".Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved1 December 2015.
^Karlsberg, Jesse P. (2021). "The Folk Scholarship Roots and Geopolitical Boundaries of Sacred Harp's Global Twenty-first Century". In Shenton, Andrew; Smolko, Joanna (eds.).Christian Sacred Music in the Americas. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 221–240.ISBN978-1-5381-4873-0.
^Bart Plantenga.Yodel-ay-ee-oooo. Routledge, 2004.ISBN978-0-415-93990-4, p. 87 Albania: "Singers in Pogoni region perform a style of polyphony that is also practised by locals in Vlach and Slav communities [in Albania]."
^Engendering Song: Singing and Subjectivity at Prespa by Jane C. Sugarman, 1997,ISBN0-226-77972-6, p. 356, "Neither of the polyphonic textures characteristic of south Albanian singing is unique to Albanians. The style is shared with Greeks in the Northwestern district of Epirus (see Fakiou and Romanos 1984) while the Tosk style is common among Aromanian communities from the Kolonje region of Albania the so-called Farsherotii (see Lortat-Jacob and Bouet 1983) and among Slavs of theKastoria region of Northern Greece (see N.Kaufamann 1959 ). Macedonians in the lower villages of the Prespa district also formerly sang this style "
^Bithell, Caroline (1996).Polyphonic Voices: National Identity, World Music and the Recording of Traditional Music in Corsica. British Forum of Ethnomusicology.
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