Polycarp of Smyrna | |
|---|---|
_-_Polycarp.jpg) Mosaic of Saint Polycarp inside the monastery ofHosios Loukas | |
| Church Father Bishop of Smyrna andHieromartyr | |
| Born | AD 69 |
| Died | AD 155 (aged 85–86) Smyrna,Roman Empire |
| Venerated in | Eastern Orthodox Church Catholic Church Oriental Orthodox Churches Church of the East Lutheranism Anglicanism |
| Majorshrine | Sant'Ambrogio della Massima, Rome |
| Feast | 23 February (formerly 26 January) |
| Attributes | Wearing thepallium, holding a book representing hisEpistle to the Philippians |
| Patronage | Earache sufferers[citation needed] |
| Influences | Clement of Rome,[1]John the Apostle |
| Influenced | Irenaeus |
| Major works | Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians |
Polycarp (/ˈpɒlikɑːrp/;Greek:Πολύκαρπος,Polýkarpos;Latin:Polycarpus; AD 69 – 155) was a Christianbishop of Smyrna.[2] According to theMartyrdom of Polycarp, he died amartyr, bound and burned at the stake, then stabbed when the fire failed to consume his body.[3] Polycarp is regarded as asaint andChurch Father in theEastern Orthodox Church, theCatholic Church,Oriental Orthodox Churches,Lutheranism, andAnglicanism.
BothIrenaeus[4] andTertullian[5] say that Polycarp had been a disciple ofJohn the Apostle, one ofJesus's disciples. InOn Illustrious Men,Jerome similarly writes that Polycarp was a disciple of John the Apostle, who had ordained him as a bishop of Smyrna.[6] Polycarp is regarded as one of three chiefApostolic Fathers, along withClement of Rome andIgnatius of Antioch.
The sole surviving work attributed to him is theEpistle of Polycarp to the Philippians, a mosaic of references to theSeptuagint, which, along with an account of theMartyrdom of Polycarp, forms part of the collection of writings calledApostolic Fathers. After theActs of the Apostles, which describes the death ofStephen, theMartyrdom is considered one of the earliest genuine accounts of aChristian martyrdom.[2] Charles E. Hill argues extensively that the teachingsIrenaeus ascribes to a certain apostolicpresbyter throughout his writings represent lost teachings of Polycarp, his teacher.[7] Within the lost epistle of Irenaeus toFlorinus as cited byEusebius within hisEcclesiastical History book 5.20. we observe Irenaeus make mention of multiple epistles authored by him to the neighbouring churches and to certain individuals.
Some scholars (e.g.,Hans von Campenhausen)[8] attribute thepastoral epistles—the biblical books1 Timothy,2 Timothy, and theEpistle to Titus—to Polycarp. Since the text of those books includes attribution toPaul, this theory regarding Polycarp's authorship places the books in the category ofpseudepigrapha.
The chief sources of information concerning the life of Polycarp areThe Martyrdom of Polycarp,Against Heresies,The Epistle to Florinus, theepistles of Ignatius, and Polycarp's ownletter to the Philippians. In 1999, the Harris Fragments, a collection of 3rd- to 6th-centuryCoptic texts that mention Polycarp, were published.[9]
According to Irenaeus, Polycarp was a companion ofPapias, another "hearer of John", and a correspondent ofIgnatius of Antioch which the document titledThe Martyrdom of Ignatius confirms:
And after a great deal of suffering he came to Smyrna, where he disembarked with great joy, and hastened to see the holy Polycarp, formerly his fellow disciple, and now bishop of Smyrna. For they had both, in old times, been disciples of St. John the Apostle.
— Martyrdom of Ignatius, Ch. 3[10]
Ignatius addressed a letter to Polycarp and mentions him in hisletters to the Ephesians and to theMagnesians.[11] Polycarp's epistle to the Philippians gives us some insights to the early usage ofearly Christian texts from the quotes used within his letter.[12] Irenaeus regarded the memory of Polycarp as a link to the apostolic past. In his letter toFlorinus, a fellow student of Polycarp, Irenaeus relates how and when hebecame a Christian:[13]
I could tell you the place where the blessed Polycarp sat to preach the Word of God. It is yet present to my mind with what gravity he everywhere came in and went out; what was the sanctity of his deportment, the majesty of his countenance; and what were his holy exhortations to the people. I seem to hear him now relate how he conversed with John and many others who had seen Jesus Christ, the words he had heard from their mouths.[14]
In particular, Irenaeus had heard the account of Polycarp's discussion with John and with others who had seenJesus. Irenaeus reports that Polycarp was converted to Christianity by apostles, was consecrated a presbyter, and communicated with many who had seen Jesus. He writes that he had had the good fortune, when young, to know Polycarp, who was then far advanced in years.[15]
According to Irenaeus, during the time his fellow SyrianAnicetus wasBishop of Rome, Polycarp visitedRome to discuss differences in the practices of the churches ofAnatolia and Rome. Irenaeus states that on certain issues the two speedily came to an understanding, while as to the observance ofEaster, each adhered to his own custom without breaking offfull communion with the other.[16] Polycarp followed the Eastern practice of celebrating the feast on the14th of Nisan, the day of the JewishPassover, regardless of the day of the week on which it fell, while Anicetus followed the Western practice of celebrating the feast on the first Sunday following the firstfull moon after thespring equinox. Anicetus allowed Polycarp to celebrate theEucharist in his own church, which was regarded by the Romans as a great honor.[16]
In theMartyrdom of Polycarp, Polycarp is reported to say on the day of his death: "Eighty and six years I have served Him, and He has done me no wrong." This could indicate either that he was then eighty-six years old[17] or that he had lived eighty-six years after his conversion.[3] Polycarp goes on to say: "How then can I blaspheme my King and Savior? You threaten me with a fire that burns for a season, and after a little while is quenched; but you are ignorant of the fire of everlasting punishment that is prepared for the wicked."[14] Polycarp wasburned at the stake and pierced with a spear for refusing to burn incense to the Roman emperor.[18] On his farewell, he said: "I bless you, Father, for judging me worthy of this hour, so that in the company of the martyrs I may share the cup of Christ."[14]
The date of Polycarp's death is in dispute.Eusebius dates it to the reign ofMarcus Aurelius, c. 166–167. However, a post-Eusebian addition to theMartyrdom of Polycarp dates his death to Saturday, 23 February, during theproconsulship ofLucius Statius Quadratus, c. 155 or 156. These earlier dates better fit the tradition of his association with Ignatius and John the Apostle.
TheMartyrdom of Polycarp states that Polycarp was taken on the Sabbath and killed on "theGreat Sabbath". English patristic scholarWilliam Cave wrote that this was evidence that the Smyrnaeans under Polycarp observed theseventh-day Sabbath (i.e. assembled on Saturdays).[19]J. B. Lightfoot records as a common interpretation of the expression "the Great Sabbath" to refer toPassover or another Jewish festival.[20] This is contradicted by thestandard Jewish calendar, under which the 14th of Nisan (the date of Passover) can fall no earlier than late March and hence at least a month after the traditional date of Polycarp's death 23 February. Hence, Lightfoot understood the expression in reference to thePurim festival, celebrated a month before Passover.[21] Other scholars suggest that at the time the Jewish calendar had not yet been standardized, and that this day, Jews and Christians celebratedPassover and aChristian Passover, respectively.[22]
Polycarp occupies an important place in the history of the early Christian Church,[9] was called "the most admirable Polycarp one of these [elect], in whose times among us he showed himself an apostolic and prophetic teacher and bishop of the Catholic Church in Smyrna"[23] by his contemporaries. He is among the earliest Christians whose writings survived. Jerome wrote that Polycarp was a "disciple of the apostle John and by him ordained presbyter of Smyrna".[24] He was an elder of an important congregation that was a large contributor to the founding of the Christian Church. He is from an era whose orthodoxy is accepted alongside Catholics by the ancient Eastern Orthodox Churches and Oriental Orthodox Churches, and widely also by mainstream Protestants,Church of God groups, andSabbatarians.
According to Eusebius,Polycrates of Ephesus cited the example of Polycarp in defense of local practices during thequartodeciman controversy.[25]
Irenaeus, who as a young man had heard Polycarp preach, described him as[26] "a man who was of much greater weight, and a more steadfast witness of truth, thanValentinus, andMarcion, and the rest of theheretics." Polycarp lived in an age after the deaths of the apostles, when a variety of interpretations of the sayings of Jesus were being preached. His role was to authenticate orthodox teachings through his connection with the apostle John: "a high value was attached to the witness Polycarp could give as to the genuine tradition of old apostolic doctrine",[3] "his testimony condemning as offensive novelties the figments of the heretical teachers". Irenaeus states (iii. 3) that on Polycarp's visit to Rome, his testimony converted many disciples of Marcion and Valentinus.
TheMartyrdom of Polycarp is one of the earliest, if not the earliest, accounts of the veneration of the relics of a saint and the annual commemoration of a saint on the date of his or her death:
And so we afterwards took up his bones which are more valuable than precious stones and finer than refined gold, and laid them in a suitable place; where the Lord will permit us to gather ourselves together, as we are able, in gladness and joy, and to celebrate the birth-day of his martyrdom for the commemoration of those that have already fought in the contest, and for the training and preparation of those that shall do so hereafter.[27]
Relics of Polycarp are under the main altar of the church ofSant'Ambrogio della Massima.[28][29] The right arm of St. Polycarp had been kept at the Monastery of the Dormition of the Theotokos-Saint Polycarp, in Ampelakiotissa near Nafpaktos, Greece, for over 500 years. It was stolen on 14 March 2013 and never recovered; however, a fragment, taken from the arm on a previous occasion, was discovered and returned to the monastery on 14 July 2019.[30]
In theRoman Catholic,Eastern Orthodox andGreek Catholic Churches, the feast day of Saint Polycarp is 23 February. In theRoman Catholic liturgical calendar, the feast day has the liturgical rank of obligatory memorial, but if the memorial is within the season of Lent that year, it is reduced in rank to a commemoration. In the Coptic Orthodox Church, his feast day is on 29 Amshir (8 March in theGregorian calendar). Polycarp isremembered in theChurch of England with aLesser Festival on 23 February.[31] He is also honored in theLutheran Churches on 23 February.[32]
Polycarp'ssoteriology is not clear; he does cite Ephesians 2:8 to saysalvation is bygrace rather than works, though later exhorts his readers to do good works. It is not clear from the text how he views works in relation to salvation as his comments are too little to make a clear conclusion. He could have believed that works are mere results of saving grace or that they are necessary to keep salvation and that they have meritorious value, thus we cannot know if he was amonergist or asynergist.[33]
Polycarp in his letter callsJesus the "son of God" and the "eternal high priest" and that "to him all heavenly and earthly things were subjected, whom every breath worships, who comes as a judge of the living and the dead". He also highlighted the sinlessness of Jesus,[34] defended the doctrine of theIncarnation and the death of Christ on the cross, and clearly opposeddocetism.[34] Polycarp outright denied the teachings ofMarcion, claiming he was the firstborn ofSatan.[35] Polycarp's statements in theMartyrdom of Polycarp also appear to havetrinitarian theology.[36]
What we know of Polycarp's eschatology is largely confined to the affirmation of theresurrection of the dead and Christ'ssecond coming as a judge.[34] Polycarp was perhaps apremillennialist; Polycarp's student Irenaeus was a premillennialist along with his associate Papias, which suggests that Polycarp also held similar views.[37][38]
Polycarp refers to multiple books of the New Testament as scripture, including:Matthew,Acts,1 John,Philippians,Jude,1 Peter,1 Timothy,2 Timothy,Romans and others.[39] Polycarp also quotes the deuterocanonicalbook of Tobit; however, from his manner of quotation it is not possible to know how much authority he afforded it.[40]
Polycarp's letter to the Philippians only mentions presbyters and deacons, which indicates the church at Philippi was led by a plurality of "elder-bishops", which would imply a different ecclesiastical polity than what is found inIgnatius of Antioch's letters. Against this, according to Steinhauser, the letter does not offer concrete evidence that the Philippian church viewed presbyters and bishops as synonyms, though still admitting that the letter still raises questions about the polity of theearly church. Steinhauser hypothesized that there was possibly a temporary vacancy in the Philippian church.[41]
Polycarp was aQuartodeciman. According to Eusebius, Polycarp claimed that he celebrated Easter on the 14th of Nisan withJohn the Apostle.[42][43] Polycarp appears to make heresy a more serious issue than immorality. Polycarp calls immoral people to repent but called the false teachers "firstborn of Satan."[44]
Polycarp stated, "I have served him [Christ] eighty-six years and in no way has he dealt unjustly with me." Proponents of infant baptism have argued that this quote shows Polycarp beingbaptized as an infant, the argument being that if Polycarp was a servant of Christ for 86 years, he would have been a servant of Christ from infancy, suggesting infant baptism. However, Credobaptists such as Schoedel William have offered a different interpretation of the words of Polycarp, stating that the quote is ambiguous as regards to baptism, and that Polycarp can be understood as meaning by paraphrasing: "I have always served Jesus and I am not going to cease even at the age of 86."[45]
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
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