Politics of India | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Polity type | FederalParliamentaryRepublic |
| Constitution | Constitution of India |
| Legislative branch | |
| Name | Parliament |
| Type | Bicameral |
| Meeting place | Sansad Bhavan |
| Upper house | |
| Name | Rajya Sabha |
| Presiding officer | Vice President C. P. Radhakrishnan,Chairman of the Rajya Sabha |
| Appointer | Electoral College |
| Lower house | |
| Name | Lok Sabha |
| Presiding officer | Om Birla,Speaker of the Lok Sabha |
| Executive branch | |
| Head of state | |
| Title | President |
| Currently | Draupadi Murmu |
| Appointer | Electoral College |
| Head of government | |
| Title | Prime Minister |
| Currently | Narendra Modi |
| Appointer | President |
| Cabinet | |
| Name | Union Council of Ministers |
| Current cabinet | Third Modi ministry |
| Leader | Prime Minister |
| Appointer | President |
| Ministries | 52 |
| Judicial branch | |
| Name | Judiciary |
| Supreme Court | |
| Chief judge | Bhushan Ramkrishna Gavai |
The politics and government of India work within the framework of the country'sConstitution, which was adopted on November 26, 1949, by the Constituent Assembly. It came into effect on January 26, 1950. India is aparliamentaryseculardemocratic republic, described as a “sovereign, socialist, secular democratic republic” in its constitution, in which thepresident of India is thehead of state and first citizen of India and thePrime Minister of India is thehead of government. It is based on the federal structure of government, although the word is not used in the Constitution itself. India follows the dual polity system, i.e. federal in nature, that consists of the central authority at the centre andstates at the periphery. The Constitution defines the organizational powers and limitations of both central and state governments; it is well recognised, fluid (with the Preamble of the Constitution, fundamental rights, and principles of liberty, equality, justice, and fraternity, being rigid and to dictate further amendments to the Constitution) and considered supreme, i.e. thelaws of the nation must conform to it. India is officially declared asecular andsocialist state as per the Constitution.[1][2][3]
There is a provision for abicamerallegislature consisting of anupper house, theRajya Sabha (Council of States), which represents the states of the Indian federation, and alower house, theLok Sabha (House of the People), which represents the people of India as a whole. The Constitution provides for anindependentjudiciary, which is headed by theSupreme Court. The court's mandate is to protect the Constitution, to settle disputes between the central government and the states, to settle inter-state disputes, to nullify any central or state laws that go against the Constitution and to protect the fundamental rights of citizens, issuingwrits for their enforcement in cases of violation.[4]
There are 543 members in the Lok Sabha, who are elected usingplurality voting (first past the post) system from 543Single-member district. There are 245 members in the Rajya Sabha, out of which 233 are elected through indirect elections by single transferable vote by the members of the state legislative assemblies; 12 other members are elected/nominated by the President of India. Governments are formed throughelections held every five years (unless otherwise specified), by parties that secure a majority of members in their respective lower houses (Lok Sabha in the central government andVidhan Sabha in states). India hadits first general election in 1951, which was won by theIndian National Congress, a political party that went on to dominate subsequent elections until1977, when a non-Congress government was formed for the first time in independent India. The 1990s saw the end ofsingle-party domination and the rise of coalition governments. The latest18th Lok Sabha elections was conducted in seven phases from 19 April 2024 to 1 June 2024 by the Election commission of India. The results bought in the NDA (National Democratic Alliance) to form in the next government[5]
In recent decades, Indian politics has become a dynastic affair.[6] Possible reasons for this could be the party stability, absence of party organisations, independent civil society associations that mobilise support for the parties and centralised financing of elections.[7] According to theV-Dem Democracy indices India in 2023 was the 19th most electoraldemocratic country in Asia.[8]
The Government of India is modelled after theWestminster system.[9] The Union government (also called as the Central government) is mainly composed of theexecutive, thelegislature, and thejudiciary, and powers are vested by theconstitution in theprime minister,parliament, and thesupreme court, respectively. Thepresident of India is thehead of state and thecommander-in-chief of theIndian Armed Forces, while theelectedprime minister acts as the head of the executive and is responsible for running the Union government.[10] The parliament isbicameral in nature, with theLok Sabha being thelower house, and theRajya Sabha theupper house. The judiciary systematically contains an apexsupreme court, 25high courts, and 688district courts, all inferior to the supreme court.[11]
The basiccivil and criminal laws governing the citizens of India are set down in major parliamentary legislation, such as thecivil procedure code, thepenal code, and thecriminal procedure code.[12] Similar to the Union government, individual state governments each consist of executive, legislative and judiciary branches. The legal system as applicable to the Union and individual state governments is based on theEnglish common andStatutory law. The termNew Delhi is commonly used as ametonym for the Union government, as the seat of the central government is inNew Delhi.
TheLok Sabha, constitutionally theHouse of the People, is thelower house ofIndia'sbicameralParliament.Members of the Lok Sabha are elected by an adultuniversal suffrage and afirst-past-the-post system to represent their respectiveconstituencies, and they hold their seats for five years or until the body is dissolved by thePresident on the advice of thecouncil of ministers. The house meets in the Lok Sabha Chambers of theParliament House, New Delhi.
The maximum membership of the House allotted by theConstitution of India is 552 (Initially, in 1950, it was 500.) Currently, the house has 543 seats which are filed by the election of up to 543 elected members. The new parliament has a seating capacity of 888 for Lok Sabha. A total of 131 seats (24.03%) are reserved for representatives ofScheduled Castes (84) and Scheduled Tribes (47). The quorum for the House is 10% of the total membership.
The Lok Sabha, unless sooner dissolved, continues to operate for five years from the date appointed for its first meeting. However, while aproclamation of emergency is in operation, this period may be extended byParliament by law or decree.
Members of Lok Sabha (House of the People) or the lower house of India's Parliament are elected by being voted upon by all adult citizens of India, who crossed 18 years from a set of candidates who stand in their respective constituencies. Every adult citizen of India can vote only in their constituency.
The Prime Minister of India is thehead of government of theRepublic of India. Executive authority is vested in the prime minister and his chosen Council of Ministers, despite thepresident of India being the nominal head of the executive. The prime minister has to be a member of one of the houses of bicameralParliament of India, alongside heading the respective house. The prime minister and their cabinet are at all times responsible to the Lok Sabha.
The prime minister is appointed by thepresident of India; however, the prime minister has to enjoy the confidence of the majority of Lok Sabha members, who are directly electedevery five years, lest the prime minister shall resign. The prime minister can be a member of the Lok Sabha or of theRajya Sabha, the upper house of the parliament. The prime minister controls the selection and dismissal of members of theUnion Council of Ministers; and allocation of posts to members within the government.
The Union Council of Ministers is theprincipal executive organ of theGovernment of India, which functions as the senior decision-making body of the executive branch. It is chaired by the prime minister and consists of the heads of each of the executive government ministries.
A smaller executive body called theUnion Cabinet is the supreme decision-making body in India; it is a subset of the Union Council of Ministers who hold important portfolios andministries of the government.
Pursuant to Article 75, a minister who works at the pleasure of thePresident, is appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister.There are five categories of the council of ministers as given below, in descending order ofrank:
TheRajya Sabha, constitutionally theCouncil of States, is theupper house of thebicameralParliament of India. It has a maximum membership of 250, of which 238 are elected by thelegislatures of the states and union territories usingsingle transferable votes through open ballots, while thepresident can appoint 12 members for their contributions to art, literature, science, and social service. The total allowed capacity is 250 (238 elected, 12 appointed) according to article 80 of theIndian Constitution. The current potential seating capacity of the Rajya Sabha is 245 (233 elected, 12 appointed).
Members sit forstaggered terms lasting six years, with about a third of the 238 designates up for election every two years, in even-numbered years. Unlike theLok Sabha, the Rajya Sabha is a continuing chamber and hence not subject to dissolution. However, the Rajya Sabha, like the Lok Sabha, can beprorogued by the president.
The Rajya Sabha has equal footing in legislation with the Lok Sabha, except in the area ofsupply, where the latter has overriding powers. In the case of conflicting legislation, ajoint sitting of the two houses can be held, where the Lok Sabha would hold a greater influence because of its larger membership. Thevice president of India is theex-officio chairman of the Rajya Sabha, who presides over its sessions. Thedeputy chairman, who is elected from amongst the house's members, takes care of the day-to-day matters of the house in the absence of the chairman.
The President of India is thehead of state of theRepublic of India. The president is the nominal head of the executive, the first citizen of the country, as well as thesupreme commander of theIndian Armed Forces.
The new president is chosen by anelectoral college consisting of the elected members of both houses ofparliament (MPs), the elected members of the State Legislative Assemblies (Vidhan Sabha) of all States and the elected members of the legislative assemblies (MLAs) of union territories with legislatures, i.e.,National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi,Jammu and Kashmir andPuducherry.
The election process of the president is a more extensive process than of theprime minister who is also elected indirectly (elected by the members of the majority party (or union) in theLok Sabha). Whereas President being the constitutional head with duties to protect, defend and preserve the constitution andrule of law in aconstitutional democracy withconstitutional supremacy, is elected in an extensive manner by the members of Lok Sabha,Rajya Sabha andstate legislative assemblies in a secret ballot procedure.
The Vice President of India is the deputy to thehead of state of theRepublic of India, i.e. thepresident of India. The office of vice president is the second-highest constitutional office after the president and ranks second in theorder of precedence and first in the line of succession to thepresidency. The vice president is also theex officio chairman of theRajya Sabha.
Article 66 of theConstitution of India states the manner of election of the vice president. The vice president is elected indirectly by members of anelectoral college consisting of the members of both Houses of Parliament and not the members of state legislative assembly by the system ofproportional representation usingsingle transferable votes and the voting is conducted byElection Commission of India via secret ballot. The vice president also acts as thechancellor of the Panjab University and Delhi University.
State governments in India are the governments ruling over28 states and8 union territories of India and the head of theCouncil of Ministers in a state is theChief Minister. Each state has alegislative assembly. A state legislature that has one house – thestate legislative assembly (Vidhan Sabha) – is aunicameral legislature. A state legislature that has two houses – the state legislative assembly andstate legislative council (Vidhan Parishad) – is abicameral legislature. The Vidhan Sabha is thelower house and corresponds to theLok Sabha while the Vidhan Parishad is theupper house and corresponds to theRajya Sabha of theParliament of India
The judicial branch of the state consists of theHigh Court at the top, followed byDistrict and Subordinate Courts, along with various special courts and tribunals established for specific purposes.[13]
The executive branch of a state government comprises theGovernor and the Council of Ministers, headed by theChief Minister. The Governor, appointed by thePresident of India, serves as the constitutional head, while the Chief Minister is the executive head of the government. Like theUnion Government, the state government follows a similar structure — the Governor corresponds to thePresident, the Chief Minister to thePrime Minister, and the State Council of Ministers to theUnion Council of Ministers.
The Council of Ministers, headed by the Chief Minister, exercises the executive powers of the state and includes Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State, appointed by the Governor on the Chief Minister's advice. The state government functions through various ministries and departments, each headed politically by aMinister. Thebureaucracy in the state is a permanent executive responsible for implementing government policies and decisions. TheChief Secretary, a seniorIAS officer, is the administrative head of the government, and each department is headed administratively by a Secretary to the Government.[14]
Vidhan Sabha, also known as state legislative assembly, is a legislative body in each of the states and certain union territories ofIndia. In22 states and 3union territories, there is aunicameral legislature which is the sole legislative body. Vidhan Sabha is present in all the states and 3 union territories.
EachMember of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) is directly elected to serve 5-year terms bysingle-member constituencies. TheConstitution of India states that a state legislative assembly must have no less than 60 and no more than 500 members however an exception may be granted via anAct ofParliament as is the case in the states ofGoa,Sikkim,Mizoram and the union territory ofPuducherry which have fewer than 60 members.
A state legislative assembly may bedissolved in astate of emergency, by theGovernor on request of theChief Minister, or if amotion of no confidence is passed against the ruling majority party or coalition.
Vidhan Parishad, also called as thestate legislative council, is theupper house in those states ofIndia that have abicameralstate legislature; thelower house being theState Legislative Assembly. Its establishment is defined in Article 169 of theConstitution of India.
Only 6 out of28 states have a legislative council. These areAndhra Pradesh,Karnataka,Telangana,Maharashtra,Bihar, andUttar Pradesh. Nounion territory has a legislative council.
The size of the state legislative councils cannot be more than one third of the membership of the state legislative assembly. However, its size cannot be less than 40 members. These members elect the chairman and deputy chairman of the state legislative council.
Local government in India is governmental jurisdiction below the level of thestate. Local self-government means that residents in towns, villages and rural settlements are the people who elect local councils and their heads authorising them to solve the important issues. The 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments give recognition and protection to local governments and in addition each state has its own local government legislation.
Since 1992, local government in India takes place in two very distinct forms. Urban localities, covered in the 74th amendment to the Constitution, have Municipality but derive their powers from the individual state governments, while the powers of rural localities have been formalized under thepanchayati raj system, under the 73rd amendment to the Constitution.
The following 3 types of democratically elected urban local governance bodies in India are calledmunicipalities and abbreviated as the"MC". These are classified based on the size of the population, density, revenue, non-agricultural employment, economic importance of the urban settlement.
The Constitutional (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 aims to provide a three-tier system of Panchayati Raj for all States having a population of over 2 million, to hold Panchayat elections regularly every five years, to provide reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Women, to appoint State Finance Commission to make recommendations as regards the financial powers of the Panchayats and to constitute District Planning Committee to prepare a draft development plan for the district.[15]The following 3 hierarchies of PRI panchayats exist in states or Union Territories with more than two million inhabitants:
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Elections in the Republic of India include elections for
TheElection Commission of India (ECI) is aconstitutional body established by theConstitution of India empowered to conductfree and fair elections in India. The Election commission is headed by aChief Election Commissioner and consists of two otherElection Commissioners.
At thestates and union territories, the Election Commission is assisted by the Chief Electoral Officer of the state or union territory (CEO), who leads the election machinery in the states and union territories. At the district and constituency levels, theDistrict Magistrates/District Collectors (in their capacity as District Election Officers), Electoral Registration Officers and Returning Officers perform election work.
The Election Commission operates under the powers granted byArticle 324 of the Constitution and subsequently enactedRepresentation of the People Act. The election commission decides the dates for the filing of nominations, voting, counting and announcement of results.
A law for the registration process for political parties was enacted in 1989. The registration ensures that the political parties are recognized as national, state and regional parties. The election commission has the right to allot symbols to the political parties depending on the status. The same symbol cannot be allocated to two political parties even if they do not contest in the region.
The commission prepares electoral rolls and updates the voter list. To prevent electoral fraud, Electors Photo Identity Cards (EPIC) were introduced in 1993. However certain legal documents such asration cards have been allowed for voting in certain situations.
The state election commissions are responsible for conducting local body elections in the respective states.
TheState Election Commission (SEC) is an independent constitutional authority responsible for conducting free and fair elections toLocal self-government institutions, such as panchayats and municipalities, within each state. Established under Article 243K and Article 243ZA of the Constitution, it oversees the preparation of electoral rolls, ensures adherence to the Model Code of Conduct, and supervises the entire election process at the state level. The Commission is headed by a State Election Commissioner, who is appointed by theGovernor.
"One Nation, One Election" is an initiative proposed in India to synchronize the schedules of theLok Sabha (House of the People) and state legislative assembly elections. The concept aims to conduct simultaneous elections for both central and state governments, a practice that was prevalent until 1967. Advocates argue that this approach would significantly reduce the burden on the public exchequer, minimize the disruption caused by frequent elections, and ensure more consistent policy implementation. However, it faces challenges, such as the logistical complexities of conducting elections on such a large scale and concerns over the potential impact on the federal structure of governance. The proposal continues to spark significant debate among political parties, constitutional experts, and the general public in India.[16][17]
Simultaneous elections were common in India until 1967, but the practice ended due to the premature dissolution of some state assemblies and the Lok Sabha in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The idea has been periodically revisited, with significant push in recent years from Prime MinisterNarendra Modi and theBharatiya Janata Party.[16]
When compared to other democracies, India has had a large number of political parties during its history under democratic governance. It has been estimated that over 200 parties were formed after India became independent in 1947.As per latest publications dated 23 March 2024 from Election Commission of India, and subsequent notifications, there are 6 national parties, 57 state parties, and 2,764 registered unrecognized parties. All registered parties contesting elections need to choose a symbol from a list of available symbols offered by the EC.
Every political party in India, whether a national or regional/state party, must have a symbol and must be registered with theElection Commission of India. Symbols are used in the Indian political system to identify political parties in part so that illiterate people can vote by recognizing the party symbols.[18]
In the current amendment to the Symbols Order, the commission has asserted the following five principles:[19]
A political party shall be eligible to be recognized as a national party if:[19]
Six national political parties are -Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP),Indian National Congress (INC),Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP),Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI-M),Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) andNational People's Party (NPP).[20]
A political party shall be entitled to be recognized as a state party, if:
Registered unrecognized political parties are those parties which are either newly registered or which have not secured enough percentage of votes in the assembly or general elections to become a state party or those which have never contested elections since being registered. Registered but unrecognized political parties don't enjoy all the benefits extended to the recognized parties.[21]
Although a strict anti-defection law had been passed in 1984, there has been a continued tendency amongst politicians to float their own parties rather than join a broad based party such as the Congress or the BJP. Between the 1984 and 1989 elections, the number of parties contesting elections increased from 33 to 113. In the decades since, this fragmentation has continued.[22]
Since the 1980s, Indian politics has become dynastic, possibly due to the absence of a party organization, independent civil society associations that mobilize support for the party, and centralized financing of elections.[7] One example of dynastic politics has been theNehru–Gandhi family which produced three Indian prime ministers: Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi. Family members have also led the Congress party for most of the period since 1978 when Indira Gandhi floated the then Congress(I) faction of the party.[23] The ruling Bharatiya Janata Party also features several senior leaders who are dynasts.[24] Dynastic politics is prevalent also in a number of political parties with regional presence such asAll India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen (AIMIM),Trinamool Congress (TMC),Bharat Rashtra Samithi (BRS),Shiv Sena (Uddhav Balasaheb Thackeray) (SHS (UBT)),Nationalist Congress Party - Sharadchandra Pawar (NCP (SP)),Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK),Indian National Lok Dal (INLD),Jammu & Kashmir National Conference (JKNC),Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party (JKPDP),Janata Dal (Secular) (JD(S)),Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM),National People's Party (NPP),Nationalist Congress Party (NCP),Pattali Makkal Katchi (PMK),Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD),Rashtriya Lok Dal (RLD),Samajwadi Party (SP),Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD),Shiv Sena (SS),Telugu Desam Party (TDP) andYSR Congress Party (YSRCP).[25]
A coalition government is a form of government in which political parties cooperate to form a government. The usual reason for such an arrangement is that no single party has achieved an absolute majority after an election. Political parties of such a coalition government forms an alliance for contesting election together usually for better prospects. Alliance usually revolves around the BJP and INC, being the two largest political parties in India without whose support, it would be difficult to form a majority government.[26]
National Democratic Alliance (NDA), a centre-right to right-wing coalition led by BJP was formed in 1998 after theelections. NDA formed a government, although the government did not last long asAIADMK withdrew support from it resulting in1999 general elections, in which NDA won and resumed power. The coalition government went on to complete the full five-years term, becoming the first non-Congress government to do so.[27]
After securing a defeating in 2004 General Election and 2009 General Elections against the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), the NDA once again returned to power in the2014 General Elections, for the second time, with a historic mandate of 336 out of 543 Lok Sabha seats. BJP itself won 282 seats, thereby electingNarendra Modi as the head of the government. In a historic win, the NDA stormed to power for the third term in2019 with a combined strength of 353 seats, with the BJP itself winning an absolute majority with 303 seats.
In the2024 Indian general election the NDA, though lost a couple of seats succeeded to form the government by winning 293 seats with a major support from allies likeTelugu Desam Party (16 seats) andJanata Dal (United) (12 seats).
The United Progressive Alliance was apolitical alliance inIndia led by theIndian National Congress. It was formed after the2004 general election with support from left-leaning political parties when no single party got the majority.
The UPA subsequently governed India from 2004 until 2014 for 2 terms before losing power to their main rivals, theBJP-ledNational Democratic Alliance. With strong corruption history within the alliance and becoming increasingly unpopular among the masses, the UPA was dissolved to form theIndian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance on 18 July 2023 ahead of the2024 general election. The UPA used to rule 7States and union territories of India before it was dissolved.
Unable to defeat the NDA in 2014 General Election and 2019 General Election, and with Congress performing its poorest in same, many political leaders understood the need for a grand alliance of almost all major political parties to stand against the BJP led NDA in the 2024 General Elections which resulted in the formation of theIndian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance (I.N.D.I.A). It was formed by merger ofUnited Progressive Alliance (UPA), Left Front and other smaller alliances, centre-left to left-wing coalition led byIndian National Congress (INC). The alliance, comprising 26 opposition parties, include many political parties that are at loggerhead with the INC in their respective states and territories but are in alliance for the 2024 General Elections.
Terrorism,Naxalism,religious violence andcaste-related violence are important issues that affect the political environment of the Indian nation. Stringent anti-terror legislation such asTADA,POTA andMCOCA have received much political attention, both in favour and against, and some of these laws were disbanded eventually due to human rights violations.[28] However,UAPA was amended in 2019 to negative effect vis-á-vis human rights.
Terrorism has affected politics in India since its conception, be it theterrorism supported from Pakistan or the internal guerrilla groups such asNaxalites. In 1991 the former Prime MinisterRajiv Gandhi wasassassinated during an election campaign.[29] The suicide bomber was later linked to the Sri Lankan terrorist groupLiberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, as it was later revealed the killing was an act of vengeance for Rajiv Gandhisending troops in Sri Lanka against them in 1987.[29]
Babri Masjid demolition on 6 December 1992 resulted in nationwide communal riots in two months, withthe worst occurring inMumbai with at least 900 dead.[29][30] The riots were followed by1993 Bombay bombings, which resulted in more deaths.
Law and order issues, such as action againstorganised crime are issues which do not affect the outcomes of elections. On the other hand, there is a criminal–politician nexus. Many elected legislators have criminal cases against them. In July 2008,The Washington Post reported that nearly a fourth of the 540Indian Parliament members faced criminal charges, "includinghuman trafficking,child prostitution, immigration rackets,embezzlement,rape and evenmurder".[31]
From 2006 to 2023 the situation ofIndian democracy worsened. There was little state presence in tribal areas and tensions between Hindus and minorities. The rebellions are a sign of the governments loss of power. Interreligious riots where observed. Political freedoms are limited since funding of NGOs, such asAmnesty International, got more difficult due to the "Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act", though the constitution guarantees freedom of association. Hindu-nationalist groups created a climate of intimidation over the country. Freedom of press is impacted through the intimidation of journalists by police, criminals and politicians.[32]
In 2023, according to theFreedom in the World report byFreedom House, India was classified as a "partly free" country for the third consecutive year.[33][34] TheV-Dem Democracy Indices byV-Dem Institute classify India as an 'electoral autocracy'. In 2023, it referred to India as "one of the worst autocratisers in the last 10 years".[35] According to theDemocracy Index of theEconomist Intelligence Unit, India is aDefective democracy.[36]
