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Thepolitics of Australia operates under the writtenAustralian Constitution, which sets out Australia as aconstitutional monarchy, governed via aparliamentary democracy in theWestminster tradition. Australia is also afederation, where power is divided between the federal government and thestates. Themonarch, currentlyKing Charles III, is thehead of state and is represented locally by thegovernor-general, while thehead of government is theprime minister, currentlyAnthony Albanese.
The country has maintained a stableliberal democratic political system under itsConstitution,the world's tenth oldest, sinceFederation in 1901. Australia largely operates as atwo-party system in whichvoting is compulsory.[1][2] TheEconomist Intelligence Unit rated Australia a "full democracy" in 2023.[3]
Like otherWestminster-style systems of government, Australia's federal system of governmentconsists of three branches: the legislative (Parliament), the executive (theprime minister, thecabinet, otherministers, and government departments), and thejudicature (theHigh Court of Australia and otherfederal courts). TheAustralian government consists of the party or coalition that had majority support in the lower house and exercises both executive (as ministers) and legislative (through control of the House) power.
The federal Parliament (as defined insection 1 of the Constitution) comprises the monarch and is bicameral (has two chambers): theHouse of Representatives (lower house) andSenate (upper house).[4] The House of Representatives has 150members, each representing an individual electoral district of about 165,000 people.[5] The Senate has 76 members: twelve from each of the six states and two each from Australia's internal territories, theAustralian Capital Territory andNorthern Territory.
Separation of powers is the principle the power of state should be shared between multiple bodies, in order to avoid the concentration of power in one entity.[6] The legislature proposes and debates laws that the executive then administers, and the judicial arbitrates cases arising from the administration of laws andcommon law. However, in accordance withWestminster system, there is no strict separation between the executive and legislative branches, with ministers required to also be members of the legislature.[7][8] Only the High Court can deem if a law is constitutional or not.[6]
The Australian system of government combines elements derived from the political systems of theUnited Kingdom (fused executive,constitutional monarchy) and theUnited States (federalism,written constitution,strong bicameralism), along with distinctive local features, and has therefore been characterised as a "Washminster mutation".[9][10][11]
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Australia is afederation, with different powers and responsibilities for the three levels of government: the federal government, thestates and territories andlocal government.
The federal nature and the structure of theParliament of Australia were the subject of protracted negotiations among the colonies during the drafting of the Constitution.[12] TheHouse of Representatives is elected on a basis that reflects the differing populations of the states. Therefore, the most populous state,New South Wales, has 48 members, while the least populated,Tasmania, has only five.[13] This is in contrast to theSenate which is elected on a basis of equality among the states: all states elect 12 senators, regardless of population. This was intended to ensure that smaller states retained influence over legislation and that laws could not be passed with only the support of the more populous states.[14] The Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory, the only territories represented in Senate, each elect only two.[15]
The federal government may only legislate on certain matters, with any remaining areas falling within the responsibility of the states. For example, the federal government has the responsibility for defence, inter-state trade and bankruptcy while the states have responsibility for healthcare and education.[16] Additionally, the states can agree to refer any of their powers to the Commonwealth government via legislation, as has been done to allow the Commonwealth to regulate corporations.[17] The federal government can also significantly influence state legislation by making tied grants (money which comes with certain conditions). This is a significant power due to high levels ofvertical fiscal imbalance arising because of the limited revenue raising capabilities of the states.[18]
In addition, Australia has several territories, two of which are self-governing: theAustralian Capital Territory and theNorthern Territory. As these territories' legislatures exercise powers devolved to them by the Commonwealth, the Parliament of Australia has the authority to override their legislation and to alter their powers. Australian citizens in these territories are represented by members of both houses of the Parliament of Australia, albeit with less representation in the Senate.Norfolk Island was self-governing from 1979 until 2015, although it was never represented as such in the Parliament of Australia.[16] The other inhabited territories:Jervis Bay,Christmas Island and theCocos (Keeling) Islands, have never been self-governing.[19][20][21]
The third level of governance islocal government, in the form ofshires, towns or cities. The councils of these areas are composed of elected representatives (known as eithercouncillor oralderman, depending on the state). Their powers are devolved to them by the state or territory in which they are located.[16]
The Australian Constitution sets down the powers and responsibilities of many of the institutions of the Australian Commonwealth. However, the prime minister, the cabinet and the other principles of responsible government are not explicitly mentioned in the document, along with most of the realities of exercise of executive power. This reflected the British influence on the document withits unwritten constitution.
The Parliament of Australia can propose changes to the Constitution. To become effective, the proposals must be put to areferendum of all Australians of voting age and must receive adouble majority: a majority of all votes, and a majority of votes in a majority of states.[22]
Section 1 of theAustralian Constitution creates a democratic legislature, thebicameralParliament of Australia which consists of themonarch and two chambers of parliament, theSenate and theHouse of Representatives.[23]Section 51 of the Constitution provides for the Australian government's legislative powers and allocates certain powers (known asheads of power) to the federal government.[24] All remaining legislative power is retained by the sixstates (previously separate colonies).[25] Further, each state has its own constitution, so that Australia has seven parliaments, with legislative power shared between them.[26] TheHigh Court of Australia rules on legal disputes which arise between the federal government and the states and territories, or among the states and territories themselves.
The monarch is the symbolic head of Australia and is ceremonially involved in all branches of the government, as a constitutive part of Parliament, formal holder of executive power and the person in whose name most criminal offences are brought. In a broader sense,the Crown represents the authority of the polity itself.[27] However, in all these functions they are represented by the governor-general, whose appointment is the only mandatory function of the monarch. Themonarch of Australia, currentlyCharles III, is also the monarch of the otherCommonwealth realms, and the sovereign of the United Kingdom.[28] The monarch is thehead of state, however in almost all matters the governor-general performs the functions of the head of state,leading some commentators to contend that the governor-general is the head of state. As aconstitutional democracy, the role is limited to constitutional and ceremonial duties.[29] The governor-general also represents Australia internationally, through making and receiving state visits.[30][31]
Since at least thepassage andadoption of theStatute of Westminster, the Monarch of Australia (along with the monarchies of the other dominions) is a separate office from theMonarch of the United Kingdom, despite being held by the same person. As such, in Commonwealth matters, the monarch is only advised by Commonwealth ministers. By theRoyal Style and Titles Act 1953, the Australian Parliament gave the Queen the titleQueen of Australia, and in 1973 titles with any reference to her status asQueen of the United Kingdom andDefender of the Faith as well were removed.[32][33]
Under the conventions of theWestminster system the governor-general's powers are almost always exercised on the advice of the Prime Minister or other ministers.[34] However, the governor-general retains somereserve powers, being powers not subject to the approval of another person or institution.[35] These are rarely exercised, but during theAustralian constitutional crisis of 1975 Governor-General SirJohn Kerr used them to dismiss the prime minister during a parliamentary deadlock over supply.[36][37]
Australia has periodically experienced movements seeking to end the monarchy. In a1999 referendum, the Australian people voted on a proposal to change the Constitution.[38] The proposal would have removed references to theQueen from the Constitution and replaced thegovernor-general with a president nominated by the prime minister, but subject to the approval of a two-thirds majority of both houses of Parliament. The proposal was defeated.[39] TheAustralian Republican Movement continues to campaign foran end to the monarchy in Australia, opposed byAustralians for Constitutional Monarchy andAustralian Monarchist League.
The Parliament exercises thelegislative power of the Commonwealth by enacting legislation. It also supervises the executive actions of the government, through activities such as question time and Senate estimates.[40] TheAustralian Parliament isbicameral and consists of theKing of Australia, the 76 memberSenate (theupper house) and the 151 memberHouse of Representatives (thelower house). TheAustralian government isresponsible to the Parliament, of which they must be (or shortly become) members. In the Senate, 12 senators are from each State and 2 senators from the ACT and the NT respectively are elected by anoptional preferentialsingle transferable vote system.[41] State senators serve staggered fixed six year terms, with half up for election each three years. Territory senators serve a non fixed term equal to that of the House of Representatives, usually around three years.[42] The most recent general election was on3 May, 2025.
In the House of Representatives, also known as thepeople's house,[43] 151 members are elected usingfull preferential voting in single member electorates (also known asseats). Elections are held once at least every three years, however the prime minister (historically the Cabinet) may request the governor-general call a new election at any time (however, they retain the discretion to refuse if inadequate reasons for the election are given).[13][44] However, as Senate elections must occur only during certain periods and as it is generally politically advantageous (while not legally required) to hold House elections at the same time,[45] elections are generally restricted to a ten month window between August and May every three years, with the last split election in1970 and1972.[46] Unlike in the Senate, in which each state is represented equally, each state has a number of seats roughly proportional to its population. The prime minister is selected from the House, needing the support of the majority of members in order to be invited to form a government.[47]
Each chamber of Parliament has equal powers, with the exception that the Senate may not introduce "money bills" (new taxes or laws authorising expenditure).[48] However, the Senate can still blocksupply (the annual bill authorising government expenditure), but this has only happened once, during the1975 Australian constitutional crisis.[49][50]
Parliamentarians belong to either the government, the opposition or sit on the cross-bench (which includes independents and members of minor parties). The opposition consists of members of the second largest party or coalition in the House of Representatives. The Leader of the Opposition heads shadow cabinet, composed of shadow ministers who mirror, scrutinise and oppose government ministers and act as the government in waiting. Although the government, by virtue of commanding a majority of members in the lower house of the Parliament, can usually pass its legislation and control the workings of the House, the opposition can considerably delay the passage of legislation and obstruct government business if it chooses.[51] The day-to-day business of theHouse of Representatives is usually negotiated between theLeader of the House, appointed by the prime minister, and theManager of Opposition Business in the House, appointed by theLeader of the Opposition.[52]
The executive's primary role is to implement the laws passed by the Parliament. Unlike the other two branches of government however, membership of the executive is not clearly defined. One definition describes the executive as a pyramid, consisting of three layers. At the top stands The King, as the symbolic apex and formal repository of executive power. Below him lies a second layer made up of the prime-minister, cabinet and other ministers who in practice lead the executive. Finally, the bottom layer includes public servants, police, government departments and independent statutory bodies who directly implement policy and laws.[53][54]
Executive power is also difficult to clearly define. In the British context, it was defined by John Locke as all government power not legislative or judicial in nature.[55] The key distinction is that while legislative power involves setting down rules of general application, executive power involves applying those rules to specific situations. In practice however, this definition is difficult to apply as many actions by executive agencies are wide ranging, binding and conducted independently of Parliament. Ultimately whether a power is executive or legislative is determined on a case by case basis, and involves the weighing up of various factors, rather than the application of a strict test.[56]
The Federal Executive Council is a formal body which exists and meets to give legal effect to decisions made by the Cabinet, and to carry out various other functions. All ministers are members of the council and are entitled to be styledThe Honourable for life. Thegovernor-general usually presides at council meetings, but in his or her absence another minister nominated as theVice-President of the Executive Council presides at the meeting of the council.[57] Since 1 June 2022, the vice-president of the Federal Executive Council has been SenatorKaty Gallagher.[58]
The Cabinet of Australia is the council of senior ministers, responsible to the Parliament. The ministers are appointed by the governor-general, on the advice of the prime minister, who serve at the former's pleasure.[59] Cabinet meetings are strictly private and occur once a week where vital issues are discussed and policy formulated. Outside the cabinet there is an outer ministry and also a number of junior ministers, calledassistant ministers (formallyparliamentary secretaries), responsible for a specific policy area and reporting directly to a senior Cabinet minister.[60]
The Constitution of Australia does not explicitly mention Cabinet; it existing solely by convention, with its decisions not in and of themselves having legal force. However, it serves as the practical expression of theFederal Executive Council, which is Australia's highest formal executive governmental body. In practice, the Federal Executive Council meets solely to endorse and give legal force to decisions already made by the Cabinet.[61] All members of the Cabinet are members of the Executive Council. While the governor-general is nominal presiding officer, they almost never attends Executive Council meetings. A senior member of the Cabinet holds the office of vice-president of the Executive Council and acts as presiding officer of the Executive Council in the absence of the governor-general.[62]
Until 1956 all members of the ministry were members of the Cabinet. The growth of the ministry in the 1940s and 1950s made this increasingly impractical, and in 1956Robert Menzies created a two-tier ministry, with only senior ministers holding Cabinet rank, also known within parliament as thefront bench. This practice has been continued by all governments except theWhitlam government.[60]
When the non-Labor parties are in power, the prime minister makes all Cabinet and ministerial appointments at their own discretion, although in practice they consult with senior colleagues in making appointments. When theLiberal Party and its predecessors (theNationalist Party and theUnited Australia Party) have been in coalition with theNational Party or its predecessor theCountry Party, the leader of the junior Coalition party has had the right to nominate their party's members of the Coalition ministry, and to be consulted by the Prime Minister on the allocation of their portfolios.[59]
WhenLabor first held office underChris Watson, Watson assumed the right to choose members of his Cabinet. In 1907, however, the party decided that future Labor Cabinets would be elected by the members of the parliamentary Labor Party, (theCaucus) and the prime minister would retain the right to allocate portfolios. This practice was followed until 2007. Between 1907 and 2007, Labor Prime Ministers exercised a predominant influence over who was elected to Labor ministries, although the leaders of the party factions also exercised considerable influence.[63] Prior to the2007 general election, the then Leader of the Opposition,Kevin Rudd, said that he and he alone would choose the ministry should he become prime minister. His party won the election and he chose the ministry, as he said he would.[64] However, in return for changes restricting the ability of Caucus to select the prime minister, in 2013 the right of Caucus to choose the ministry was restored.[65] While Caucus rules are not public,[66] theSydney Morning Herald has reported that ministerial positions are allocated to theLeft andRight factions on a proportional basis according to their representation in Parliament.[67] The Left selects their ministers nationally, whilst the Right assigns ministers according to state based quotas.[67]
The cabinet meets not only in Canberra but also in state capitals, most frequently Sydney and Melbourne. Kevin Rudd was in favour of the Cabinet meeting in other places, such as major regional cities.[68] There areCommonwealth Parliament Offices in each state capital, with those in Sydney located in1 Bligh Street.[69]
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As a federation, in Australia judicial power is exercised by both federal and state courts. However, unlike theUK's multiple legal systems there is only one legal system and likeCanada and unlike theUS there is only one common law of the nation, rather than a common law for each state.[70][71] Additionally, unlike Canada and the US, there is no distinct federal common law.[72]
Federal judicial power is vested in theHigh Court of Australia and such other federal courts created by the Parliament, including theFederal Court of Australia, theFamily Court of Australia, and theFederal Circuit Court of Australia. Additionally, the Parliament has the power to enact laws which vest federal authority in state courts.[73] Since the Constitution requires a separation of powers at the federal level, only courts may exercise federal judicial power; and conversely, non-judicial functions cannot be vested in courts.[74]
State judicial power is exercised by each state's supreme court, and such other courts and tribunals created by the state parliaments.
TheHigh Court of Australia is thesupreme court in theAustralian court hierarchy and the finalcourt of appeal in Australia. It has both original and appellate jurisdiction, has the power ofjudicial review over laws passed by the Parliament of Australia and the parliaments of thestates, and interprets the Constitution of Australia. The High Court is mandated bysection 71 of the Constitution, which vests in it thejudicial power of the Commonwealth of Australia. The High Court was constituted by theJudiciary Act 1903 (Cth). The High Court is composed of seven Justices: theChief Justice of Australia, presentlyStephen Gageler, and six other Justices.
The state supreme courts are also considered to be superior courts, those with unlimited jurisdiction to hear disputes and which are the pinnacle of the court hierarchy within their jurisdictions. They were created by means of the constitutions of their respective states or the self government Acts for theACT and theNorthern Territory. Appeals may be made from state supreme courts to theHigh Court of Australia.
Inferior courts are secondary to superior courts. Their existence stems from legislation and they only have the power to decide on matters which Parliament has granted them. Decisions in inferior courts can be appealed to the superior court in that area, and then to the High Court of Australia.
Until the passage of theAustralia Act 1986, by the Australian and UK parliaments, some Australian cases could be referred to the BritishJudicial Committee of the Privy Council for final appeal. With this act, Australian law was made fully independent, and theHigh Court of Australia was confirmed as the highest court of appeal. The theoretical possibility of the British Parliament enacting laws to override the Australian Constitution was also removed.[75]
Federal elections are held at least once every three years.[a] Theprime minister can advise the governor-general to call an election for the House of Representatives at any time, but Senate elections can only be held within certain periods prescribed in theAustralian Constitution. Although it is possible to hold elections for the House and Senate separately, it is the convention to hold simultaneous elections for both houses; every national election since1974 has been for both the House and the Senate.
Voting has been compulsory federally since 1924, except for Indigenous Australians. All restrictions on Indigenous people's right to vote were removed in 1962, but this right remained optional until both voting and enrolment became compulsory in 1984. Federal enrolment for non-Indigenous Australians has been compulsory since 1911.[76][77] Compulsory voting laws are actively enforced, with a failure to vote attracting a $20 fine.[78] All non-Indigenouswomen gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1902 and in all states by 1908.[79]
All seats in the House of Representatives are contested in each election. Members are elected usingpreferential voting, in which the winning candidate obtains over 50% of votes after distribution of preferences; therefore, preference flows from lower-polling candidates are frequently significant in electoral outcomes. Senate elections are contested by half the senators from each state, except in the case of a double dissolution where all senators contest the election; senators representing the territories are elected and sworn into office simultaneously with the House of Representatives rather than the rest of the Senate. All senators are elected using thesingle transferable voting system of proportional representation, which has resulted in a greater presence of minor parties in the Senate. With the exception of a three-year period from 2005 to 2008, no party or coalition has held a majority in the Senate since 1981; this has required governments to frequently seek the support of minor parties or independent senators holding thebalance of power in order to secure their legislative agenda.
Because the Senate's system of single transferable voting requires a lower quota than the House in order to obtain a seat, minor parties have often focused their election efforts on the upper house. This is true also at state level (only the two territories and Queensland areunicameral). Historically it has been comparatively rarer for minor parties and independents to win seats in the House of Representatives, although the size of the crossbench has been on an increasing trend since the1990 federal election The most recent Australian federal election, which took place on21 May 2022, saw the election of a historically large crossbench in the House of Representatives consisting of six minor party members and ten independents.
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Australia's six states and the two largest territories are structured within a political framework similar to that of the Commonwealth. Each state has its own bicameral parliament, with the exception of Queensland and the two territories, whose parliaments are unicameral. Each state has agovernor, who undertakes a role equivalent to that of the governor-general at the federal level, and apremier, who is the head of government and is equivalent to the prime minister. Each state also has its own supreme court, from which appeals can be made to the High Court of Australia.
State and territory elections occur every four years usingfixed terms (except for Tasmania, where the premier decides the date of the election).[80]
Thomas Playford served asPremier of South Australia and leader of the Liberal and Country League (LCL) from 5 November 1938 to 10 March 1965 (26 years).it was the longest term of any elected government leader in Australian history.
Labor winning government in New South Wales on25 March 2023 marked the second time in history that theAustralian Labor Party gained control of the entirety ofMainland Australia at the federal and mainland state levels simultaneously (leavingTasmania as the only state with a Liberal government), a feat that had last been achieved in 2007.[81][82] This would last until24 August 2024 when Labor lost government in the Northern Territory to theCountry Liberal Party (CLP) opposition. TheLiberal–National Coalition has never achieved this feat (control of the entirety ofMainland Australia at the federal and mainland state levels simultaneously) as of 2024.
Queensland is regarded as comparativelyconservative.[83][84][85][86][87] Victoria and the Australian Capital Territory are regarded as comparativelyleft of centre.[87][88][89][90] New South Wales, the largest state by population, as well as South Australia have often been regarded as politically moderatebellwether states.[90][87] Western Australia, by contrast, tends to be more politically volatile; regarded as the most conservative state during the 2000–10s,[91] it has lately swung to rank amongst the most left-leaning states in the country. It is also known for historical secessionist sentiments.[92][93]
Local government in Australia is the lowest tier of government. Local governments are subject to the relevantstates and territories. There is only one level of local government in Australia; with none of the distinctive local government types seen in otheranglophone nations. Most local governments within the states have equivalent powers to each other; styles such asshire orcity have only historical meaning.
The Australian party system has been described by political scientists as more ideologically driven than other similar anglophone countries such as theUnited States andCanada.[94] In early Australian political history, class interests played a significant role in the division between thedemocratic socialistAustralian Labor Party and a series of anti-Labor parties drawing on theliberal andconservative traditions (the predecessors of the modernCoalition of theLiberals andNationals).[95][96]
In contemporary Australian political culture, the Liberal and National parties are considered centre-right and the Australian Labor Party is considered centre-left.[97]Australian conservatism is largely represented by the Liberal Party, along withAustralian liberalism.[citation needed]
The Australian Labor Party defines itself as a "democratic socialist party" with the objective of the "democratic socialisation [of the economy] ... to the extent necessary to eliminate exploitation and other anti-social features".[98] This objective is regarded by some within the modern party as an ideological anachronism, but supported by others critical of market based policies.[99][100] In practice the party today reflects policy traditions oflabourism (also characterised asneo-liberalism orThird Way policies, these principles being more prominent since the prime ministership of Gough Whitlam[101]), democratic socialism andsocial democracy.[102]
In recent decades there has been a marked shift amongst the Australian electorate in providing their first preference votes to candidates not belonging to either of the two major parties. At the2022 federal election 31% gave their preference to a non-major party candidate.[103]
Organised, national political parties have dominated Australia's political landscape since federation. The late 19th century saw the rise of the Australian Labor Party, which represented organised workers.[104] Opposing interests coalesced into two main parties: a centre-right party with a base in business and the middle classes that has been predominantly conservative and moderate, now the Liberal Party of Australia;[105] and a rural or agrarian conservative party, now the National Party of Australia.[106]
Australian politics has mostly been ade factotwo-party system, as a result of the long-standing coalition between the Liberal Party and National Party. TheGreens are major 4th party with a high presence in the senate. Additionally there are also other groups likeTeal Independents and otherminor parties in Parliament. The coalition also exists at state level in all states exceptWA. The two parties are official merged as theLNP inQueensland and the separateCLP competes in theNorthern Territory, which is affiliated with both coalition parties.[107] Internal party discipline has historically been tight, unlike the situation in other countries such as the United States.[108] Australia's political system has not always been a two-party system. In the early years of Federation, the emerging Australian Parliament was a "substantial arena" of various fragmented political parties, and it was not until 1909, as parliamentary politics became increasingly bipolar, that the merger occurred and the party system coalesced into the Labor Party and a non-Labor bloc.[108]
TheAustralian Labor Party (ALP) is asocial democratic party. It is a left leaning party with tendency towards social welfare and government assistance programs. It was founded by theAustralian labour movement and broadly represents the urban working and middle classes.
TheLiberal Party of Australia is a party of the centre-right which broadly represents businesses, the middle classes and many rural people. Its coalition partner at national level is theNational Party of Australia, formerly known as the Country Party, a conservative party which represents rural interests. These two parties are collectively known as the federalCoalition. In Queensland, the two parties have officially merged to form theLiberal National Party, and in the Northern Territory, theCountry Liberal Party has associate status with both the Liberals and the Nationals.
While there are a small number of other minor political parties that have achieved parliamentary representation, the Labor Party and the Coalition dominate organised politics throughout Australia. Historically, they have positioned themselves as opponents or ‘watchdogs’ of the major parties,[109] although since the 1980s, their political representation has been increasing: in the1980 federal election, the combined primary votes of minor parties and independents accounted for just 8%; by2022, this figure had risen to 32%, the highest ever recorded.[110]
Minor parties in Australian politics include agreen party, theAustralian Greens (the largest of the minor parties since 2004); acentrist party,Centre Alliance; anationalist party,Pauline Hanson's One Nation; and aright-wing agrarian party,Katter's Australian Party. Other significant parties in recent years have included theClive Palmer ledUnited Australia Party (not to be confused with the historical incarnation that was the predecessor to the Liberal party) and thesocially conservativeFamily First Party, among others. Historically significant parties have included theUnited Australia Party, theDemocratic Labor Party (1950s–1970s), theCommunist Party of Australia, the socially liberalAustralian Democrats (1970s–1990s) among others.
A notable election result for a third party other than Labor or the Liberal, Nationals, was in the1998 Queensland state election. Where One Nation with nearly 23% of the vote, gained the highest percentage of the vote than any other third party (i.e. not Labor,Coalition, or independents) at the state or territory level since Federation 1901. This was also the only election at which a third party gained more votes than both theLiberal Party and theNational Party considered separately. This was One Nation's highest ever recorded election result in its history.
At the2010 Tasmanian state election, the Greens secured 21.6% of the primary vote. This is the highest vote the Greens has ever recorded in any state or federal election as of 2024.
A collection of climate conscious andeconomically liberal independents commonly referred to as theteals were elected in the 2022 election, taking many seats previously held by moderate Liberal Party members.[111][112]
Since federation, there have been31 prime ministers of Australia. The longest-serving prime minister wasSir Robert Menzies of the Liberal Party, who served for 19 years from 1939 to 1941, and again from 1949 to 1966. The only other prime minister to serve for longer than a decade wasJohn Howard, also of the Liberal Party, who led for more than 11 years from 1996 to 2007. The Coalition and its direct predecessors have governed at the federal level for a large majority of Australia's history since federation: 30,791 days as compared to Labor's 14,903 days.
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Atwo-party system has existed in theAustralian House of Representatives since the two non-Labor parties merged in 1909 and continued with the creation of theCoalition in 1922.[113] The1910 election was the first to elect amajority government, with theAustralian Labor Party concurrently winning the firstSenate majority. Prior to 1909 a three-party system existed in the chamber. In 1919, the voting system changed fromfirst-past-the-post topreferential voting. Thetwo-party-preferred vote (2PP) has been commonly used since the 1970s to analyse how voting patterns relate to the seats won.[114] ALP = Australian Labor Party, L+NP = grouping ofLiberal/National/LNP/CLP Coalition parties (and predecessors), Oth =other parties andindependents.
| Election Year | Labor | Free Trade | Protectionist | Independent | Other parties | Total seats | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | 1901 | 14 | 28 | 31 | 2 | 75 | ||||
| Election Year | Labor | Free Trade | Protectionist | Independent | Other parties | Total seats | ||||
| 2nd | 1903 | 23 | 25 | 26 | 1 | Revenue Tariff | 75 | |||
| Election Year | Labor | Anti-Socialist | Protectionist | Independent | Other parties | Total seats | ||||
| 3rd | 1906 | 26 | 26 | 21 | 1 | 1 | Western Australian | 75 | ||
| Primary vote | 2PP vote | Seats | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Election | ALP[115] | L+NP | Oth. | ALP | L+NP | ALP | L+NP | Oth. | Total |
| 1901 | 19.4% | – | 80.6%[b] | – | – | 14 | – | 61[c] | 75 |
| 1903 | 31.0% | – | 69%[d] | – | – | 23 | – | 52[e] | 75 |
| 1906 | 36.6% | – | 63.4%[f] | – | – | 26 | – | 49[g] | 75 |
| 1910 | 50.0% | 45.1% | 4.9% | – | – | 42 | 31 | 2 | 75 |
| 1913 | 48.5% | 48.9% | 2.6% | – | – | 37 | 38 | 0 | 75 |
| 1914 | 50.9% | 47.2% | 1.9% | – | – | 42 | 32 | 1 | 75 |
| 1917 | 43.9% | 54.2% | 1.9% | – | – | 22 | 53 | 0 | 75 |
| 1919 | 42.5% | 54.3% | 3.2% | 45.9% | 54.1% | 26 | 38 | 1 | 75 |
| 1922 | 42.3% | 47.8% | 9.9% | 48.8% | 51.2% | 29 | 40 | 6 | 75 |
| 1925 | 45.0% | 53.2% | 1.8% | 46.2% | 53.8% | 23 | 50 | 2 | 75 |
| 1928 | 44.7% | 49.6% | 5.8% | 48.4% | 51.6% | 31 | 42 | 2 | 75 |
| 1929 | 48.8% | 44.2% | 7.0% | 56.7% | 43.3% | 46 | 24 | 5 | 75 |
| 1931 | 37.8%[h] | 48.4% | 24.5% | 41.5% | 58.5% | 14 | 50 | 11 | 75 |
| 1934 | 41.2%[i] | 45.6% | 27.6% | 46.5% | 53.5% | 18 | 42 | 14 | 74 |
| 1937 | 43.1% | 49.3% | 7.5% | 49.4% | 50.6% | 29 | 43 | 2 | 74 |
| 1940 | 40.1% | 43.9% | 15.9% | 50.3% | 49.7% | 32 | 36 | 6 | 74 |
| 1943 | 49.9% | 31.3% | 18.6% | 58.2% | 41.8% | 49 | 23 | 2 | 74 |
| 1946 | 49.7% | 39.3% | 11.0% | 54.1% | 45.9% | 43 | 26 | 5 | 74 |
| 1949 | 46.0% | 50.3% | 3.7% | 49.0% | 51.0% | 47 | 74 | 0 | 121 |
| 1951 | 47.7% | 50.3% | 2.1% | 49.3% | 50.7% | 52 | 69 | 0 | 121 |
| 1954 | 50.1% | 46.8% | 3.2% | 50.7% | 49.3% | 57 | 64 | 0 | 121 |
| 1955 | 44.7% | 47.6% | 7.8% | 45.8% | 54.2% | 47 | 75 | 0 | 122 |
| 1958 | 42.9% | 46.6% | 10.6% | 45.9% | 54.1% | 45 | 77 | 0 | 122 |
| 1961 | 48.0% | 42.1% | 10.0% | 50.5% | 49.5% | 60 | 62 | 0 | 122 |
| 1963 | 45.5% | 46.0% | 8.5% | 47.4% | 52.6% | 50 | 72 | 0 | 122 |
| 1966 | 40.0% | 50.0% | 10.0% | 43.1% | 56.9% | 41 | 82 | 1 | 124 |
| 1969 | 47.0% | 43.3% | 9.7% | 50.2% | 49.8% | 59 | 66 | 0 | 125 |
| 1972 | 49.6% | 41.5% | 8.9% | 52.7% | 47.3% | 67 | 58 | 0 | 125 |
| 1974 | 49.3% | 44.9% | 5.8% | 51.7% | 48.3% | 66 | 61 | 0 | 127 |
| 1975 | 42.8% | 53.1% | 4.1% | 44.3% | 55.7% | 36 | 91 | 0 | 127 |
| 1977 | 39.6% | 48.1% | 12.2% | 45.4% | 54.6% | 38 | 86 | 0 | 124 |
| 1980 | 45.1% | 46.3% | 8.5% | 49.6% | 50.4% | 51 | 74 | 0 | 125 |
| 1983 | 59.5% | 43.6% | 6.9% | 53.2% | 46.8% | 75 | 50 | 0 | 125 |
| 1984 | 47.5% | 45.0% | 7.4% | 51.8% | 48.2% | 82 | 66 | 0 | 148 |
| 1987 | 45.8% | 46.1% | 8.1% | 50.8% | 49.2% | 86 | 62 | 0 | 148 |
| 1990 | 39.4% | 43.5% | 17.1% | 49.9% | 50.1% | 78 | 69 | 1 | 148 |
| 1993 | 44.9% | 44.3% | 10.7% | 51.4% | 48.6% | 80 | 65 | 2 | 147 |
| 1996 | 38.8% | 47.3% | 14.0% | 46.4% | 53.6% | 49 | 94 | 5 | 148 |
| 1998 | 40.1% | 39.5% | 20.4% | 51.0% | 49.0% | 67 | 80 | 1 | 148 |
| 2001 | 37.8% | 43.0% | 19.2% | 49.0% | 51.0% | 65 | 82 | 3 | 150 |
| 2004 | 37.6% | 46.7% | 15.7% | 47.3% | 52.7% | 60 | 87 | 3 | 150 |
| 2007 | 43.4% | 42.1% | 14.5% | 52.7% | 47.3% | 83 | 65 | 2 | 150 |
| 2010 | 38.0% | 43.3% | 18.7% | 50.1% | 49.9% | 72 | 72 | 6 | 150 |
| 2013 | 33.4% | 45.6% | 21.0% | 46.5% | 53.5% | 55 | 90 | 5 | 150 |
| 2016 | 34.7% | 42.0% | 23.3% | 49.6% | 50.4% | 69 | 76 | 5 | 150 |
| 2019 | 33.3% | 41.4% | 25.2% | 48.5% | 51.5% | 68 | 77 | 6 | 151 |
| 2022 | 32.6% | 35.7% | 31.7% | 52.1% | 47.9% | 77 | 58 | 16 | 151 |
| 2025 | 34.6% | 31.8% | 33.6% | 55.2% | 44.8% | 94 | 43 | 13 | 150 |
The Senate has included representatives from a range of political parties, including several parties that have seldom or never had representation in the House of Representatives, but which have consistently secured a small but significant level of electoral support, as the table shows.
Results represent the composition of the Senate after the elections. The full Senate has been contested on eight occasions; the inaugural election and sevendouble dissolutions. These are underlined and highlighted in puce.[116]
| Election Year | Labor | Liberal[j] | National[k] | Democratic Labor | Democrats | Greens | CLP | Independent | Other parties | Total seats | Electoral system | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | 1901 | 8 | 11[l] | 17 | 36 | Plurality-at-large voting | |||||||||
| 2nd | 1903 | 8 | 12[l] | 14 | 1 | 1 | Revenue Tariff | 36 | Plurality-at-large voting | ||||||
| 3rd | 1906 | 15 | 6[l] | 13 | 2 | 36 | Plurality-at-large voting | ||||||||
| 4th | 1910 | 22 | 14 | 36 | Plurality-at-large voting | ||||||||||
| 5th | 1913 | 29 | 7 | 36 | Plurality-at-large voting | ||||||||||
| 6th | 1914 | 31 | 5 | 36 | Plurality-at-large voting | ||||||||||
| 7th | 1917 | 12 | 24 | 36 | Plurality-at-large voting | ||||||||||
| 8th | 1919 | 1 | 35 | 36 | Preferential block voting | ||||||||||
| 9th | 1922 | 12 | 24 | 36 | Preferential block voting | ||||||||||
| 10th | 1925 | 8 | 25 | 3 | 36 | Preferential block voting | |||||||||
| 11th | 1928 | 7 | 24 | 5 | 36 | Preferential block voting | |||||||||
| 12th | 1931 | 10 | 21 | 5 | 36 | Preferential block voting | |||||||||
| 13th | 1934 | 3 | 26 | 7 | 36 | Preferential block voting | |||||||||
| 14th | 1937 | 16 | 16 | 4 | 36 | Preferential block voting | |||||||||
| 15th | 1940 | 17 | 15 | 4 | 36 | Preferential block voting | |||||||||
| 16th | 1943 | 22 | 12 | 2 | 36 | Preferential block voting | |||||||||
| 17th | 1946 | 33 | 2 | 1 | 36 | Preferential block voting | |||||||||
| 18th | 1949 | 34 | 21 | 5 | 60 | Single transferable vote (Full preferential voting) | |||||||||
| 19th | 1951 | 28 | 26 | 6 | 60 | Single transferable vote | |||||||||
| 20th | 1953 | 29 | 26 | 5 | 60 | Single transferable vote | |||||||||
| 21st | 1955 | 28 | 24 | 6 | 2 | 60 | Single transferable vote | ||||||||
| 22nd | 1958 | 26 | 25 | 7 | 2 | 60 | Single transferable vote | ||||||||
| 23rd | 1961 | 28 | 24 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 60 | Single transferable vote | |||||||
| 24th | 1964 | 27 | 23 | 7 | 2 | 1 | 60 | Single transferable vote | |||||||
| 25th | 1967 | 27 | 21 | 7 | 4 | 1 | 60 | Single transferable vote | |||||||
| 26th | 1970 | 26 | 21 | 5 | 5 | 3 | 60 | Single transferable vote | |||||||
| 27th | 1974 | 29 | 23 | 6 | 1 | 1 | Liberal Movement | 60 | Single transferable vote | ||||||
| 28th | 1975 | 27 | 26 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 1 | Liberal Movement | 64 | Single transferable vote | |||||
| 29th | 1977 | 27 | 27 | 6 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 64 | Single transferable vote | ||||||
| 30th | 1980 | 27 | 28 | 3 | 5 | 1 | 1 | 64 | Single transferable vote | ||||||
| 31st | 1983 | 30 | 23 | 4 | 5 | 1 | 1 | 64 | Single transferable vote | ||||||
| 32nd | 1984 | 34 | 27 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 1 | Nuclear Disarmament | 76 | Single transferable vote (Group voting ticket) | ||||
| 33rd | 1987 | 32 | 26 | 7 | 7 | 1 | 2 | 1 | Nuclear Disarmament | 76 | Single transferable vote (Group voting ticket) | ||||
| 34th | 1990 | 32 | 28 | 5 | 8 | 1 | 1 | 1 | Greens (WA) | 76 | Single transferable vote (Group voting ticket) | ||||
| 35th | 1993 | 30 | 29 | 6 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 2 | Greens (WA) (2) | 76 | Single transferable vote (Group voting ticket) | ||||
| 36th | 1996 | 29 | 31 | 5 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 2 | Greens (WA),Greens (Tas) | 76 | Single transferable vote (Group voting ticket) | ||||
| 37th | 1998 | 29 | 31 | 3 | 9 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | One Nation | 76 | Single transferable vote (Group voting ticket) | |||
| 38th | 2001 | 28 | 31 | 3 | 8 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | One Nation | 76 | Single transferable vote (Group voting ticket) | |||
| 39th | 2004 | 28 | 33 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 1 | Family First | 76 | Single transferable vote (Group voting ticket) | ||||
| 40th | 2007 | 32 | 32 | 4 | 5 | 1 | 1 | 1 | Family First | 76 | Single transferable vote (Group voting ticket) | ||||
| 41st | 2010 | 31 | 28 + (3LNP) | 2 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 1 | 76 | Single transferable vote (Group voting ticket) | |||||
| 42nd | 2013 | 25 | 23 + (5LNP) | 3 + (1LNP) | 1 | 10 | 1 | 1 | 6 | Family First, Liberal Democrats, Motoring Enthusiast, Palmer United (3) | 76 | Single transferable vote (Group voting ticket) | |||
| 43rd | 2016 | 26 | 21 + (3LNP) | 3 + (2LNP) | 9 | 1 | 11 | Family First, Jacqui Lambie, Justice Party, Liberal Democrats, Nick Xenophon Team (3), One Nation (4) | 76 | Single transferable vote (Optional preferential voting) | |||||
| 44th | 2019 | 26 | 26 + (4LNP) | 2 + (2LNP) | 9 | 1 | 1 | 5 | Centre Alliance (2), Jacqui Lambie, One Nation (2), | 76 | Single transferable vote (Optional preferential voting) | ||||
| 45th | 2022 | 26 | 23 + (3LNP) | 3 + (2LNP) | 12 | 1 | 1 | 5 | Lambie Network (2), One Nation (2), United Australia (1) | 76 | Single transferable vote (Optional preferential voting) | ||||
| 46th | 2025 | 29 | 23 + (3LNP) | 3 + (2LNP) | 10 | 1 | 1 | 5 | One Nation (4), Lambie Network (1), United Australia (1) | 76 | Single transferable vote (Optional preferential voting) | ||||
Under the Westminster system of government which Australia has inherited from the United Kingdom ... there is no similar strict separation between legislative and executive power. On the contrary, the executive is integrated into the legislature by the requirement that the ministers responsible for the departments of government must be Members of Parliament accountable to it through such mechanisms as question time.
I think that that isn't well understood", said Cindy McCreery, a senior lecturer of history at the University of Sydney. "The fact is that the British monarch is separately, individually monarch of the remaining Commonwealth Realms. "So when King Charles goes to Canada, he is King of Canada, when he goes to Australia, he's King of Australia, and that those are actually separate relationships.
There are exceptions to the convention that the Governor-General should act only on advice. These are the 'reserve powers', which the Governor-General can exercise in the absence of, or even contrary to, such advice.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)It is clear that it is incumbent on the Prime Minister to establish sufficient grounds for the need for dissolution, particularly when the House is not near the end of its three year term. The Governor-General makes a judgment on the sufficiency of the grounds. It is in this situation where it is generally recognised that the Governor-General may exercise a discretion not to accept the advice given.
| Federalparliamentary parties | |
|---|---|
| State and territory parliaments (parties not represented federally) |
|
| OtherAEC-registered parties | |
