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Political repression has been exercised inIran since the1979 Islamic Revolution, which led AyatollahRuhollah Khomeini to power and thus established an Islamictheocratic state underpinned by a political system that combined Islamic principles with authoritarian control. The Islamic Republic has throughout its history used executions, massacres and torture[specify] against those perceived as potential dissidents. In 2024, theUnited Nations Special Rapporteur on Human Rights in Iran published a report that categorised the1981–1982 massacres and1988 executions ascrimes against humanity andgenocide.[1]
The1979 Islamic Revolution, which resulted in the overthrow of the Pahlavi monarchy, marked the beginning of a new era of governance in Iran.[2] Following the revolution, political power was held by the clerical leadership ofAyatollah Khomeini,[2] who sought to establish an Islamic state based onWilayat al-Faqih (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist), a doctrine that grants supreme political authority to the highest-ranking cleric.[3][4][5]
Having overthrown the previous government due to its own oppression of civil liberties, Khomeini was first viewed as a unifying figure who did not seek power but only to help free the Iranian people[6][7] as well as an ally of the different branches of the Iranian opposition.[8][9] Subsequently, Khomeini's regime moved to "systemically eliminate rival political groups".[10][unreliable source?]
The 1981 massacre was orchestrated by theIslamic Republic of Iran, which targeted perceived political and religious opponents of the Islamic Republic. Among those targeted were intellectuals, artists, scientists, liberals, monarchists, socialists, ethnic minorities, as well as members of religious groups such as theBahá'í Faith.[citation needed] Spanning from June 1981 to March 1982, this mass violence was part of theCultural Revolution, which was initiated byAyatollah Khomeini with the goal of removing non-Islamic influences from Iranian society. This purge led to the deaths of thousands of political and religious dissidents, as well as critics of the regime.[11][12][13]
In 2024, theUnited Nations Special Rapporteur classified the crimes committed during this period as bothgenocide andcrimes against humanity. The report called for the establishment of an independent international body to investigate and hold those responsible accountable for their actions during the massacre.[12]
In mid-1988,Ayatollah Khomeini, theSupreme Leader of Iran, ordered the execution of thousands of political prisoners. These executions took place over a span of five months, beginning in July, across at least 32 cities inIran.[citation needed] The executions were conductedwithout any legal process, with trials that focused neither on determining guilt nor innocence. Many prisoners were subjected to torture, and the executions were carried out in secrecy.[14][15] The exact number of those killed remains uncertain, but estimates range from 2,800 to 5,000 people were killed, according toHuman Rights Watch,[16] with some human rights organizations such asAmnesty International estimating at least 5,000 deaths.[14][17]
Most of the victims were supporters of thePeople's Mujahedin of Iran (MeK), but individuals from other leftist groups, such as the Fedaian and theTudeh Party, were also executed. While one possible motive for the killings was retaliation for the MeK'sOperation Mersad in 1988, there were also victims unrelated to the operation.[18][19]Ayatollah Montazeri, theDeputy Supreme Leader at the time, claimed that the regime had planned these executions for years, using the MeK operation as a pretext.[14] Survivors have called for accountability, and the event has been condemned by the United Nations and various countries as one of Iran's greatest crimes against humanity.[20][undue weight? –discuss]
In 1989, following the death of Ayatollah Khomeini, Ali Khamenei assumed the role of Supreme Leader of Iran. A former president and a close ally of Khomeini, Khamenei continued the policies of the Islamic Republic. According to The Guardian, he acted by "eliminating opponents and rewarding those loyal to him".[21] Among those targeted by Khamenei were poets.[21]
Following the declaration ofMahmoud Ahmadinejad as the winner of the presidential elections amidst allegations by the Iranian opposition of widespread electoral fraud,[22] there were widespread protests known collectively as theGreen Movement. Protesters demanded the annulment of the election results and the resignation of the government, accusing the regime of rigging the election.[22][23]
In response to the protests, the Iranian government used police, the IRGC and its paramilitaryBasij militia. Basij members carried out night raids as well as raids against the homes of Iranians during protests.[24][25] According to theLos Angeles Times, militiamen fromAnsar-e Hezbollah warned that they would patrol the streets to enforce law and order.[26]
Thousands were arrested, hundreds were killed, and many others were tortured or forced into making televised confessions.[23][27]
Public protests erupted across several cities in Iran starting on December 28, 2017, and continued into early 2018, often referred to as the Dey protests.[28] The protests initially began inMashhad, Iran's second-largest city, focusing on economic issues, but quickly expanded to include political opposition to the theocratic government and Supreme LeaderAli Khamenei. Demonstrators expressed their anger through a variety of chants directed at the regime and its leadership, including the provocative "Death to the dictator!"[29] aimed at Khamenei.[30][28] According toThe Washington Post, these protests, along with attacks on government buildings, disrupted a regime with little tolerance for dissent, with some protesters even urging security forces to join them.[30]
In a 2020 report byHuman Rights Watch (HRW), it was found that Iranian authorities continued to tightly suppress peaceful activism, targeting human rights defenders, lawyers, and political prisoners who spoke out against government corruption, mismanagement, and repression. The regime's response to protests, including those in November 2019, involved excessive and lethal force according to HRW. Security forces killing at least 230 people, according to official figures. Iran also down the internet nationwide to prevent the spread of dissent.[31]
According to HRW, the Iranian government is a world leader in the carrying out of executions, performing 233 executions in 2020. Among those executed were people convicted of crimes when they werechildren. Human rights defenders,ethnic minorities, and political activists facearbitrary imprisonment,torture, and unfair trials according to HRW. The government's actions, including the imprisonment of peaceful dissenters and the failure to hold security forces accountable, are said to have deepened public frustration with the regime.[31]
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In September 2022,Human Rights Watch reported that widespread protests in Iran were met with excessive and lethal force from security forces, including unlawful killings, torture, sexual assault, and enforced disappearances of protesters, including women and children.[32] HRW reported at least 500 deaths, including those of 68 children.[32][33] Security forces reportedly used various types of bullets to shoot victims. HRW also reported that a 17-year-old boy, a high school student, was sexually assaulted, and another was pushed onto a lit gas range and tortured during her arrest. HRW also found that Iranian interrogators used needles to torture a boy.[32]
Before the anniversary ofMahsa Amini's death approached in 2023,[33] HRW reported that Iranian authorities intensified their repression of dissent, targeting activists, students, and families of those killed in the 2022 protests. HRW reported that government efforts to enforce compulsory hijab laws increased, alongside arrests of women's rights defenders, artists, and lawyers.[33]
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Following the onset of theIran–Israel war,Amnesty International reported that Iranian authorities have escalated their political repression by targeting individuals accused of espionage or collaboration with Israel. The government implemented calls for expedited trials and executions, targeting those the Iranian government accused of "enmity against God" and "corruption on earth," which is punishable by death in Iran.[34][35] Amnesty International expressed grave concerns about what it called the systematic abuse of the death penalty. Amnesty warned that these charges are often used to punish individuals for peacefully exercising their rights tofreedom of expression. The Iranian government also targeted family members of the detained and those already on death row. Amnesty reported a heightened risk of execution for individuals like Swedish-Iranian academicAhmadreza Djalali and others sentenced after unfair trials andforced confessions.[34][35]
In an effort to increase the use of the death penalty,Iran's parliament fast-tracked legislation to automatically assign death sentences for espionage or cooperation with hostile governments. In its report, Amnesty International said the bill is aimed to streamline executions for national security charges, including those not involving intentional killing. Amnesty International said this a violation of international legal standards.[34] Amnesty reported that during the war, the Iranian regime is repressing dissent througharbitrary arrests, forced confessions, and executions, which instill fear and maintain control over the Iranian people during the conflict.[34][35]
TheLong War Journal wrote that Iranian authorities have cracked down on citizens it accuses of sharing online content perceived as supportive of Israel. It arrested at least 19 individuals inHormozgan andYazd provinces for allegedly spreading misinformation or photographing sensitive sites.[36] Iranian officials cited Article 8 of a national security law, which prescribes prison terms for such actions, and said their actions were done in order to combat "hostile measures."[citation needed] The regime also cracked down on internet access following, a move often used to stifle dissent. In response,Elon Musk has stated thatStarlink is now functioning in Iran. TheLong War Journal wrote that at least 10 individuals were detained on espionage charges linked to Israel, with two executed at the onset of the conflict.[36]
The IRGC plays a central role in the enforcement of political repression in Iran. Under its control is theBasij militia, which is tasked with controlling and oppressing dissent against theIslamic Revolution.[37] The IRGC was created to protect the new theocratic regime and prevent coups, to protect Ayatollah Khomeini's vision of a state based onvelayat-e faqih (guardianship of the jurist). The IRGC has grown into a powerful military, political, and economic force. The IRGC is tasked with maintaining internal security and defending the regime against perceived threats, both domestic and foreign. Former members occupy high-ranking government positions. It has amassed wealth by operating networks that bypass international sanctions.[38] The organization is responsible for overseeing various repressive activities, including the suppression of protests, surveillance of opposition figures, and the control of media and internet access. The IRGC is said to control between 20 and 40% of theIranian economy.[37]
TheBasij, aparamilitary force under theIslamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), plays a key role in enforcing political repression in Iran. Established in 1979 byAyatollah Khomeini, it functions as a tool for maintaining regime control, suppressing dissent, and policing public morality. The Basij is instrumental in quelling protests and has been involved in violent crackdowns throughout Iran's history. Its members, including underage recruits, students, and elderly individuals, are mobilized to enforce the regime's policies and maintain internal security. Despite not receiving salaries, Basij members benefit from preferential access to government jobs and services. As a central element in the IRGC, the Basij is a powerful force used by the regime to suppress opposition and maintain its political grip on the country.[39][40]
The Basij has used violence against students, women, and opposition activists.[41][40]
TheIranian judiciary plays an important role in maintaining fear among the Iranian population as well as suppressing dissent and maintaining the regime's control.[42] Courts in Iran lack independence from government or religion.[43][44] Political dissidents are sometimes denied access to legal representation and can be forced into making confessions through torture.[45][46]Arbitrary arrests and trials deemed unfair by Amnesty International are held. Amnesty International also reported that Iran's detention of foreign nationals in Iran can amount to hostage taking.[47]
In the Iranian legal system, there is capital punishment for political crimes, including charges such asefsad-fil-arz (corruption on earth),moharabeh (waging war against god), insulting theProphet Mohammed and others.[48][49][50]
Media censorship is a tool of political repression in the Islamic Republic of Iran.[51] The government controls all major newspapers, television, and radio stations, with independent journalism being severely restricted.[52] Journalists who criticize the government or cover political events[53] are subject to violence. The media in Iran was described by the FFDD as "propaganda".[54][55]
Iran has one of the world's most restrictiveinternet censorship systems,[56][57][58][59] with the government and theIRGC blocking access to around 70% of the internet, including major platforms likeYouTube,Twitter,Facebook, andTelegram.[60] The government heavily monitors and restricts internet traffic, with the Internet Filtering Committee deciding which sites to block. In response to the 2019 protests, Iran implemented a total internet shutdown, reducing traffic to 5% of normal levels.[61][62] Following the 2022 protests overMahsa Amini's death, Iran was ranked as the second-highest country for internet censorship. Authorities have targetedVPNs to prevent access to foreign media.[63] As of 2025, over 100,000Starlink terminals were operating in Iran.[64]
The Islamic Republic of Iran has been accused of seizing the bodies of deceased protesters fromhospitals andmorgues, preventing their families from conductingfunerals, which could otherwise become focal points for further protests. This practice is said to have been occurring since the start of the regime's rule and to have escalated following protests. The UN said Iran has refused to return the bodies of some of the deceased, as well as linked it[clarification needed] with Iran's treatment of detained protesters.[65][66]
The confiscation of bodies is viewed as a method to deny the victims and their families dignity and respect, as well as a way to conceal atrocities committed by the government. This act violates bothinternational human rights law andIslamic law, which mandate proper burial and respect for the deceased. In addition to violating legal and moral principles, this practice also denies families the right to seek justice and truth regarding their loved ones' deaths. By preventing funerals, the authorities are said to aim to stifle potential protests and obscure the true scale of the violence against protesters.[67][66][65]
Iran has been accused of using "hostage diplomacy" by "systematically" arresting foreign nationals and Iranians with dual citizenship to leverage political concessions from other countries. A dual German Iranian was charged with "belonging to an illegal organization" and spreading "propaganda against the regime".DW said there was no evidence supporting this. Lawyers representing detainees in Iran have argued that such arrests are often politically motivated, with individuals detained to be exchanged for other prisoners or political gains at a later date. DW said that the practice of holding foreign nationals as bargaining chips first began when Iranian students took U.S. embassy personnel hostage to pressure the U.S. government in 1979.[68]
Dual nationals detained in Iran include German-Iranian Nahid Taghavi and Swedish-Iranian academicAhmadreza Djalali.Deutsche Welle's Shabnam von Hein noted that the tactic of hostage taking increases during discussions overIran's nuclear program.[68]
Some people make the mistake of assuming that Wilayat al-faqih refers only to the universal authority, when in fact it refers to the total scope of the scholar's vicegerency in the absence of an infallible Imam."
