Thepolitical history of France covers the history of political movements and systems of government in the nation ofFrance, from the earliest stages of thehistory of France until the present day. This political history might be considered to start with the formation of theKingdom of France, and continue until the present day.

Political history is the narrative and survey of political events, ideas, movements, organs of government, voters, parties and leaders.^[1] It is closely related to other fields of history, includingdiplomatic history,constitutional history,social history,people's history, andpublic history. Political history studies the organization and operation of power in large societies.

TheKingdom of France is the historiographical name orumbrella term given to various political entities ofFrance in themedieval andearly modern period. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe since theHigh Middle Ages. It was also an earlycolonial power, with colonies in Asia and Africa, and the largest beingNew France in North America.

France originated asWest Francia (Francia Occidentalis), the western half of theCarolingian Empire, with theTreaty of Verdun (843). A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, whenHugh Capet was elected king and founded theCapetian dynasty. The territory remained known asFrancia and its ruler asrex Francorum ("king of the Franks") well into theHigh Middle Ages. The first king calling himselfrex Francie ("King of France") wasPhilip II, in 1190, and officially from 1204. From then, France was continuously ruled by the Capetians and theircadet lines under theValois andBourbon until the monarchy was abolished in 1792 during theFrench Revolution. The Kingdom of France was also ruled inpersonal union with theKingdom of Navarre over two time periods, 1284–1328 and 1572–1620, after which the institutions of Navarre were abolished and it was fully annexed by France (though the King of France continued to use the title "King of Navarre" through the end of the monarchy).^[2]

France in the Middle Ages was a decentralised,feudal monarchy. InBrittany andCatalonia (now a part of Spain), as well asAquitaine, the authority of the French king was barely felt.Lorraine andBurgundy were states of theHoly Roman Empire and not yet a part of France. West Frankish kings were initially elected by the secular and ecclesiastical magnates, but the regular coronation of the eldest son of the reigning king during his father's lifetime established the principle of maleprimogeniture, which became codified in theSalic law.

During theLate Middle Ages, rivalry between the Capetian dynasty, rulers of the Kingdom of France and their vassals theHouse of Plantagenet, who also ruled theKingdom of England as part of their so-called competingAngevin Empire, resulted in many armed struggles. The most notorious of them all are the series of conflicts known as theHundred Years' War (1337–1453) in which thekings of England laid claim to the French throne. Emerging victorious from said conflicts, France subsequently sought to extend its influence intoItaly, but was defeated bySpain and the Holy Roman Empire in the ensuingItalian Wars (1494–1559).^[3]

TheCapetian dynasty, also known as the "House of France", is adynasty ofEuropean origin, and a branch of theRobertians and theKarlings. It is among the largest and oldestroyal houses inEurope and the world, and consists ofHugh Capet, the founder of the dynasty, and his male-line descendants, who ruled in France without interruption from 987 to 1792, and again from 1814 to 1848. The senior line ruled in France as theHouse of Capet from the election of Hugh Capet in 987 until the death ofCharles IV in 1328. That line was succeeded bycadet branches, the Houses ofValois and thenBourbon, which ruled without interruption until theFrench Revolution abolished the monarchy in 1792. The Bourbons were restored in 1814 in the aftermath ofNapoleon's defeat, but had to vacate the throne again in 1830 in favour of the last Capetian monarch of France,Louis Philippe I, who belonged to theHouse of Orléans.Cadet branches of the Capetian House of Bourbon are still reigning over Spain and Luxembourg.

The dynasty had a crucial role in the formation of the French state. Initially obeyed only in their owndemesne, theÎle-de-France, the Capetian kings slowly but steadily increased their power and influence until it grew to cover the entirety of their realm. For a detailed narration on the growth of French royal power, seeCrown lands of France.

Members of the dynasty were traditionally Catholic, and the early Capetians had an alliance with theChurch. The French were also the most active participants in theCrusades, culminating in a series of five Crusader kings –Louis VII,Philip Augustus,Louis VIII,Louis IX, andPhilip III. The Capetian alliance with the papacy suffered a severe blow after the disaster of theAragonese Crusade. Philip III's son and successor,Philip IV, humiliated Pope Boniface VIII and brought thepapacy under French control. The later Valois, starting withFrancis I, ignored religious differences andallied with theOttoman sultan to counter the growing power of theHoly Roman Empire.Henry IV was a Protestant at the time of his accession, but realized the necessity of conversion after four years of religious warfare.

The Capetians generally enjoyed a harmonious family relationship. By tradition, younger sons and brothers of the king of France were givenappanages for them to maintain their rank and to dissuade them from claiming the French crown itself. When Capetian cadets did aspire for kingship, their ambitions were directed not at the French throne, but at foreign thrones. As a result, the Capetians have reigned at different times in the kingdoms ofPortugal,Sicily andNaples,Navarre,Hungary and Croatia,Poland,Spain andSardinia, grand dukedoms ofLithuania andLuxembourg, and inLatin andBrazilian empires.

In modern times, KingFelipe VI of Spain is a member of this family, whileGrand Duke Henri of Luxembourg is related to the family byagnatic kinship; both through theBourbon branch of the dynasty. Along with theHouse of Habsburg, arguably its greatest historic rival, it was one of the two oldestEuropean royal dynasties. It was also one of the most powerful royal family in European history, having played a major role in its politics for much of its existence. According toOxford University, 75% of allroyal families inEuropean history, are related to the Capetian dynasty.^[4][5][6]

TheAncien Régime^[a] also known as the Old Regime, was thepolitical and social system of theKingdom of France from theLate Middle Ages (c. 1500) until 1789 and theFrench Revolution^[7] which abolished thefeudal system of theFrench nobility (1790)^[8] andhereditary monarchy (1792).^[9] TheValois dynasty ruled during the Ancien Régime up until 1589 and was subsequently replaced by theBourbon dynasty. The term is occasionally used to refer to the similar feudal systems of the time elsewhere in Europe such asthat of Switzerland.^[10]

France in the early modern era was increasingly centralised; the French language began to displace other languages from official use, and the monarch expanded hisabsolute power in the administrative system of theAncien Régime, complicated by historic and regional irregularities in taxation, legal, judicial, and ecclesiastic divisions, and local prerogatives. Religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, theHuguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, theWars of Religion (1562–1598). The Wars of Religion crippled France, but triumph overSpain and theHabsburg monarchy in theThirty Years' War made France the most powerful nation on the continent once more. The kingdom became Europe's dominant cultural, political and military power in the 17th century underLouis XIV.^[11] In parallel, France developed its first colonial empire in Asia, Africa, and in the Americas.

The administrative and social structures of the Ancien Régime in France evolved across years of state-building, legislative acts (like theOrdinance of Villers-Cotterêts), and internal conflicts. The Valois dynasty's attempts at reform and at re-establishing control over the scattered political centres of the country were hindered by theWars of Religion from 1562 to 1598.^[12] During the Bourbon dynasty, much of the reigns ofHenry IV (r. 1589–1610) andLouis XIII (r. 1610–1643) and the early years ofLouis XIV (r. 1643–1715) focused on administrative centralization. Despite the notion of "absolute monarchy" (typified by the king's right to issue orders throughlettres de cachet) and efforts to create a centralized state, Ancien Régime France remained a country of systemic irregularities: administrative, legal, judicial, and ecclesiastic divisions and prerogatives frequently overlapped, while the French nobility struggled to maintain their rights in the matters of local government and justice, and powerful internal conflicts (such asThe Fronde) protested against this centralization.

TheFrench Wars of Religion were a series ofcivil wars between FrenchCatholics andProtestants (calledHuguenots) from 1562 to 1598. Between two and four million people died from violence, famine or disease directly caused by the conflict, and it severely damaged the power of the French monarchy.^[13] One of its most notorious episodes was theSt. Bartholomew's Day massacre in 1572. The fighting ended with a compromise in 1598, when Henry of Navarre, who had converted to Catholicism in 1593, was proclaimedKing Henry IV of France and issued theEdict of Nantes, which granted substantial rights and freedoms to the Huguenots. However, Catholics continued to disapprove of Protestants and of Henry, and his assassination in 1610 triggered a fresh round ofHuguenot rebellions in the 1620s.

Tensions between the two religions had been building since the 1530s, exacerbating existing regional divisions. The death ofHenry II of France in July 1559 initiated a prolonged struggle for power between his widowCatherine de' Medici and powerful nobles. These included a fervently Catholic faction led by theGuise andMontmorency families, and Protestants headed by theHouse of Condé andJeanne d'Albret. Both sides received assistance from external powers, withSpain andSavoy supporting the Catholics, andEngland and theDutch Republic backing the Protestants.

Moderates, also known asPolitiques, hoped to maintain order by centralising power and making concessions to Huguenots, rather than the policies of repression pursued by Henry II and his fatherFrancis I. They were initially supported by Catherine de' Medici, whose January 1562Edict of Saint-Germain was strongly opposed by the Guise faction and led to an outbreak of widespread fighting in March. The Edict of Amboise' also known as the Edict of Pacification, was signed at theChâteau of Amboise on 19 March 1563 byCatherine de' Medici, acting as regent for her sonCharles IX of France. The Edict ended the first stage of theFrench Wars of Religion, inaugurating a period of official peace inFrance by guaranteeing theHuguenots religious privileges and freedoms. However, it was gradually undermined by continuing religious violence at a regional level and hostilities renewed in 1567. Catherine de' Medici later hardened her stance and backed the 1572St. Bartholomew's Day massacre inParis, which resulted in Catholic mobs killing between 5,000 and 30,000 Protestants throughout France.

The wars threatened the authority of themonarchy and the lastValois kings, Catherine's three sonsFrancis II,Charles IX, andHenry III.

TheirBourbon successorHenry IV of France responded by creating a strong central state and extending toleration to Huguenots. Henry IV successfully ended the civil wars. He and his ministers appeased Catholic leaders using bribes of about 7 million écus, a sum greater than France's annual revenue. Huguenot leaders were placated by theEdict of Nantes, which had four separate sections. The articles laid down the tolerance which would be accorded to the Huguenots including the exact places where worship may or may not take place, the recognition of three Protestant universities, and the allowance of Protestant synods. The king also issued two personal documents (calledbrevets) which recognized the Protestant establishment. The Edict of Nantes signed religious tolerance into law, and the brevets were an act of benevolence that created a Protestant state within France.^[14]

Despite this, it would take years to restore law and order to France. The Edict was met by opposition from theparlements, which objected to the guarantees offered to Protestants. TheParlement de Rouen did not formally register the edict until 1609, although it begrudgingly observed its terms.^[15]

The latter policy would last until 1685, when Henry's grandsonLouis XIVrevoked the Edict of Nantes.

TheHouse of Bourbon is adynasty that originated in theKingdom of France as a branch of theCapetian dynasty, the royal House of France. Bourbon kings began to rule France andNavarre in 1589. A branch descended from the French Bourbons came to ruleSpain in the 18th century and is the currentSpanish royal family.

The royal Bourbons originated in 1272, whenRobert, the youngest son of KingLouis IX of France, married the heiress of thelordship of Bourbon.^[16] The house continued for three centuries as acadet branch, serving as nobles under the direct Capetian andValois kings. The senior line of the House of Bourbon became extinct in the male line in 1527 with the death of DukeCharles III of Bourbon. This made the juniorBourbon-Vendôme branch the genealogically senior branch of the House of Bourbon.

In 1589, at the death ofHenry III of France, theHouse of Valois became extinct in the male line. Under theSalic law, the head of the House of Bourbon, as the senior representative of the senior-surviving branch of the Capetian dynasty, became King of France asHenry IV.^[16] Bourbon monarchs then united to France the part of theKingdom of Navarre north of thePyrenees, which Henry's father had acquired by marriage in 1555, ruling both until the 1792 overthrow of the monarchy during theFrench Revolution.

Restored briefly in 1814 and definitively in 1815 after the fall of theFirst French Empire, the senior line of the Bourbons was finally overthrown in theJuly Revolution of 1830. A cadet Bourbon branch, theHouse of Orléans, then ruled for 18 years (1830–1848), until it too was overthrown

The first Bourbonking of France wasHenry IV.^[16] He was born on 13 December 1553 in theKingdom of Navarre.Antoine de Bourbon, his father, was a ninth-generation descendant of KingLouis IX of France.^[16]Jeanne d'Albret, his mother, was the Queen of Navarre and niece of KingFrancis I of France. He was baptizedCatholic, but raisedCalvinist. After his father was killed in 1562, he becameDuke of Vendôme at the age of 10, with AdmiralGaspard de Coligny (1519–1572) as his regent. Seven years later, the young duke became the nominal leader of theHuguenots after the death of his uncle thePrince de Condé in 1569.

In 1572,Catherine de' Medici, mother of KingCharles IX of France, arranged for the marriage of her daughter,Margaret of Valois, to Henry, ostensibly to advance peace between Catholics and Huguenots. Many Huguenots gathered in Paris for the wedding on 24 August, but were ambushed and slaughtered by Catholics in theSt. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. Henry saved his own life by converting to Catholicism. He repudiated his conversion in 1576 and resumed his leadership of the Huguenots. The period from 1576 to 1584 was relatively calm in France, with the Huguenots consolidating control of much of the south with only occasional interference from the royal government.

A major civil war erupted in 1584, whenFrançois, Duke of Anjou, younger brother of KingHenry III of France, died, leaving Navarre next in line for the throne. Thus began theWar of the Three Henrys, as Henry of Navarre, Henry III, and the ultra-Catholic leader,Henry of Guise, fought a confusing three-cornered struggle for dominance. After Henry III was assassinated on 31 July 1589, Navarre claimed the throne as the first Bourbon king of France, Henry IV.

Much of Catholic France, organized into theCatholic League, refused to recognize a Protestant monarch and instead recognized Henry IV's uncle,Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon, as rightful king, and the civil war continued. Henry won a crucial victory atIvry on 14 March 1590 and, following the death of the Cardinal the same year, the forces of the League lacked an obvious Catholic candidate for the throne and divided into various factions. Nevertheless, as a Protestant, Henry IV was unable to take Paris, a Catholic stronghold, or to decisively defeat his enemies, now supported by the Spanish. He reconverted to Catholicism in 1593^[17] and was crowned king retroactively to 1589 at theCathedral of Chartres on 27 February 1594.^[18]

TheHuguenot rebellions, sometimes called the Rohan Wars'after theHuguenot leaderHenri de Rohan, were a series of rebellions of the 1620s in whichFrenchCalvinistProtestants (Huguenots), mainly located in southwestern France, revolted against royal authority. The uprising occurred a decade after the death ofHenry IV who, himself originally a Huguenot before converting toCatholicism, had protected Protestants through theEdict of Nantes. His successorLouis XIII, under theregency of his Italian Catholic motherMarie de' Medici, became more intolerant of Protestantism. The Huguenots responded by establishing independent political and military structures, establishing diplomatic contacts with foreign powers, and openly revolting against central power. The Huguenot rebellions came after two decades of internal peace under Henry IV, following the intermittentFrench Wars of Religion of 1562–1598.

Louis XIV (Louis-Dieudonné; 5 September 1638 – 1 September 1715), also known as Louis the Great (Louis le Grand) or the Sun King (le Roi Soleil), wasKing of France from 1643 until his death in 1715. His verified reign of 72 years and 110 days is thelongest of any sovereign.^[19][b] Although Louis XIV's France was emblematic of theAge of Absolutism in Europe,^[21] the King surrounded himself with a variety of significant political, military, and cultural figures, such asBossuet,Colbert,Louvois,Le Brun,Le Nôtre,Lully,Mazarin,Molière,Racine,Turenne,Condé, andVauban.

Louis began his personal rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief ministerCardinal Mazarin, when the King famously declared that he would take over the job himself.^[22] An adherent of thedivine right of kings, Louis continued his predecessors' work of creating acentralised state governed from the capital. He sought to eliminate the remnants offeudalism persisting in parts of France; by compelling many members of thenobility to reside at his lavishPalace of Versailles, he succeeded in pacifying the aristocracy, many of whom had participated inthe Fronde rebellions during his minority. He thus became one of the most powerful French monarchs and consolidated a system ofabsolute monarchy in France that endured until theFrench Revolution. Louis also enforced uniformity of religion under theCatholic Church. Hisrevocation of theEdict of Nantes abolished the rights of theHuguenot Protestant minority and subjected them to a wave ofdragonnades, effectively forcing Huguenots to emigrate or convert, virtually destroying the French Protestant community.

During Louis's long reign, France emerged as the leading European power and regularly asserted its military strength. Aconflict with Spain marked his entire childhood, while during his personal rule, Louis fought three major continental conflicts, each against powerful foreign alliances: theFranco-Dutch War, theNine Years' War, and theWar of the Spanish Succession. In addition, France also contested shorter wars, such as theWar of Devolution and theWar of the Reunions. Warfare defined Louis's foreign policy and his personal ambition shaped his approach. Impelled by "a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique", he sensed that war was the ideal way to enhance his glory. His wars strained France's resources to the utmost, while in peacetime, he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats that their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military.^[23] Upon his death in 1715, Louis XIV left his great-grandson and successor,Louis XV, a powerful kingdom, albeit in major debt after the War of the Spanish Succession that had raged on since 1701.

Significant achievements during Louis XIV's reign which would go on to have a wide influence on theearly modern period, well into theIndustrial Revolution and until today, include the construction of theCanal du Midi, the patronage ofartists, and the founding of theFrench Academy of Sciences.

The Fronde^[24] was a series ofcivil wars in theKingdom of France between 1648 and 1653, occurring in the midst of theFranco-Spanish War, which had begun in 1635. KingLouis XIV confronted the combined opposition of the princes, the nobility, the law courts (parlements), as well as most of the French people, and managed to subdue them all. The dispute started when the government of France issued seven fiscal edicts, six of which were to increase taxation. Theparlements resisted and questioned the constitutionality of the King's actions and sought to check his powers.^[25]

The Fronde was divided into two campaigns, the Parlementary Fronde and the Fronde of thePrinces. The timing of the outbreak of the Parlementary Fronde, directly after thePeace of Westphalia (1648) that ended theThirty Years' War, was significant. The nuclei of the armed bands that terrorized parts of France under aristocratic leaders during that period had been hardened in a generation of war in Germany, where troops still tended to operate autonomously. Louis XIV, impressed as a young ruler with the experience of the Fronde, came to reorganize French fighting forces under a stricter hierarchy, whose leaders ultimately could be made or unmade by the King.Cardinal Mazarin blundered into the crisis but came out well ahead at the end.

The Fronde represented the final attempt of the French nobility to do battle with the king, and they were humiliated. In the long term, the Fronde served to strengthen royal authority, but weakened the economy. The Fronde facilitated the emergence ofabsolute monarchy.^[26]

TheSpanish Empire, which had promoted the Fronde to the point that without its support, it would have had a more limited character, benefited from the internal upheaval in France since it contributed to the Spanish military's renewed success in its war against the French between 1647 and 1656, so much so that the year 1652 could be considered a Spanishannus mirabilis.^[27] Only the later English intervention in the form of theAnglo-Spanish War (1654–1660) in favor of France would change the situation.

In the 16th to the 17th centuries, the First French colonial empire stretched from a total area at its peak in 1680 to over 10,000,000 square kilometres (3,900,000 mi²), the second-largest empire in the world at the time behind theSpanish Empire. Colonial conflicts withGreat Britain led to the loss of much of itsNorth American holdings by 1763.

TheSeven Years' War (1756–1763) was aglobal conflict that involved most of the Europeangreat powers, and was fought primarily in Europe, the Americas, andAsia-Pacific. Other concurrent conflicts include theFrench and Indian War (1754–1763), theCarnatic Wars (1744–1763), and theAnglo-Spanish War (1762–1763). The opposing alliances were led byGreat Britain andFrance respectively, both seeking to establish global pre-eminence at the expense of the other.^[28] Along withSpain, France fought Britain both in Europe and overseas with land-based armies and naval forces, while Britain's allyPrussia sought territorial expansion in Europe and consolidation of its power. Long-standing colonial rivalries pitted Britain against France and Spain inNorth America and theWest Indies. They fought on a grand scale with consequential results. Prussia sought greater influence in the German states, while Austria wanted to regainSilesia, captured by Prussia in the previous war, and to contain Prussian influence.

In a realignment of traditional alliances, known as theDiplomatic Revolution of 1756, Prussia became part of a coalition led by Britain, which also included long-time Prussian competitorHanover, at the time inpersonal union with Britain. At the same time, Austria ended centuries of conflict between theBourbon andHabsburg families by allying with France, along withSaxony,Sweden, andRussia. Spain aligned formally with France in 1761, joining France in theThird Family Compact between the two Bourbon monarchies. Smaller German states either joined the Seven Years' War or suppliedmercenaries to the parties involved in the conflict.

Anglo-French conflicts broke out in their North American colonies in 1754, when British and French colonial militias and their respective Native American allies engaged in small skirmishes, and later full-scalecolonial warfare. The colonial conflicts would become a theatre of the Seven Years' War when war was officially declared two years later, and it effectively ended France's presence as a land power on that continent. It was "the most important event to occur in eighteenth-century North America"^{[29][attribution needed]} prior to theAmerican Revolution. Spain entered the war on the French side in 1762, unsuccessfully attempting toinvade Britain's allyPortugal in what became known as theFantastic War.

The alliance with France was a disaster for Spain, with the loss to Britain of two major ports,Havana in Cuba andManila in the Philippines, returned in the 1763Treaty of Paris between France, Spain and Great Britain. In Europe, the large-scale conflict that drew in most of the European powers was centred on the desire of Austria (long the political centre of theHoly Roman Empire of the German nation) to recover Silesia from Prussia. TheTreaty of Hubertusburg ended the war between Saxony, Austria and Prussia, in 1763.

Britain began its rise as the world's predominant colonial and naval power. France's supremacy in Europe was halted until after theFrench Revolution and the emergence ofNapoleon Bonaparte. Prussia confirmed its status as a great power, challenging Austria for dominance within the German states, thus altering theEuropean balance of power.

French intervention in theAmerican Revolutionary War helped theUnited States secure independence from KingGeorge III and theKingdom of Great Britain, but was costly and achieved little for France.

Following theFrench Revolution, which began in 1789, the Kingdom of Franceadopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with theFirst French Republic. Themonarchy was restored by the other great powers in 1814 and, with the exception of theHundred Days in 1815, lasted until theFrench Revolution of 1848.

The underlyingcauses of the French Revolution were theAncien Régime's inability to manage risingsocial andeconomic inequality. Population growth and interest payments ongovernment debt led to economic depression, unemployment, and high food prices.^[30] Combined with aregressive tax system and resistance to reform by the rulingelite, the result was a crisisLouis XVI proved unable to resolve.^[31][32]

Between 1700 and 1789, the French population grew from an estimated 21 to 28 million, while Paris alone had over 600,000 inhabitants, of whom roughly one third had no regular work.^[33] Food production failed to keep up with these numbers, and although wages increased by 22% between 1770 and 1790, in the same period prices rose by 65%,^[34] which many blamed on government inaction.^[35] Combined with a series of poor harvests, by 1789 the result was a ruralpeasantry with nothing to sell, and an urbanproletariat whose purchasing power had collapsed.^[36]

High levels of state debt, which acted as a drag on the wider economy, are often attributed to the1778–1783 Anglo-French War. However, one economic historian argues "neither [its] level in 1788, or previous history, can be considered an explanation for the outbreak of revolution in 1789".^[37] In 1788, the ratio of debt togross national income in France was 55.6%, compared to 181.8% in Britain, and although French borrowing costs were higher, the percentage of revenue devoted to interest payments was roughly the same in both countries.^[38]

The problem lay in the assessment and collection of the taxes used to fund government expenditure. Rates varied widely from one region to another, were often different from the official amounts, and collected inconsistently. Complexity, as much as the financial burden, caused resentment among all taxpayers; although the nobility paid significantly less than other classes, they complained just as much.^[39][c] Attempts to simplify the system were blocked by the regionalParlements which controlled financial policy. The resulting impasse in the face of widespread economic distress led to the calling of theEstates-General, which became radicalised by the struggle for control of public finances.^[41]

Although willing to consider reforms, Louis XVI often backed down when faced with opposition from conservative elements within the nobility.^[42] The court became the target for popular anger, particularly QueenMarie-Antoinette, who was viewed as a spendthrift Austrian spy, and blamed for the dismissal of 'progressive' ministers likeJacques Necker. For their opponents,Enlightenment ideas on equality and democracy provided

The French Revolution was a period of radical political and societal change inFrance that began with theEstates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of theFrench Consulate inNovember 1799. Many of its ideas are considered fundamental principles ofliberal democracy,^[43] while the values and institutions it created remain central to French political discourse.^[44]

Itscauses are generally agreed to be a combination of social, political and economic factors, which theAncien Régime proved unable to manage. In May 1789, widespread social distress led to theconvocation of theEstates General, which was converted into aNational Assembly in June. Continuing unrest culminated in theStorming of the Bastille on 14 July, which led to a series of radical measures by the Assembly, including theabolition of feudalism, the imposition of state control over theCatholic Church in France, and extension of the right to vote.

The next three years were dominated by the struggle for political control, exacerbated byeconomic depression andcivil disorder.Austria,Britain,Prussia and other external powers sought to restore theAncien Régime by force, while many French politicians saw war as the best way to unite the nation and preserve the revolution by exporting it to other countries. These factors resulted in the outbreak of theFrench Revolutionary Wars in April 1792,abolition of the French monarchy and proclamation of theFrench First Republic in September 1792, followed by theexecution of Louis XVI in January 1793.

Following theParis-basedInsurrection of 31 May – 2 June 1793 the constitution was suspended and effective political power passed from theNational Convention to the more radicalCommittee of Public Safety. An estimated 16,000 "counter-revolutionaries" were executed during the subsequentReign of Terror, which ended with the so-calledThermidorian Reaction in July 1794. Weakened by a combination of external threats and internal opposition, in November 1795 the Republic was replaced by theDirectory. Four years later in November 1799, theConsulate seized power in amilitary coup led byNapoleon Bonaparte. This is generally seen as marking the end of the Revolutionary period.

TheNational Convention (French:Convention nationale) was theconstituent assembly of theKingdom of France for one day and theFrench First Republic for its first three years during theFrench Revolution, following the two-yearNational Constituent Assembly and the one-yearLegislative Assembly. Created after the greatinsurrection of 10 August 1792, it was the first French government organized as a republic, abandoning the monarchy altogether. The Convention sat as a single-chamber assembly from 20 September 1792 to 26 October 1795 (4Brumaire IV under theConvention's adopted calendar).

The Convention came about when the Legislative Assembly decreed the provisional suspension of KingLouis XVI and the convocation of a National Convention to draw up a new constitution with no monarchy. The other major innovation was to decree that deputies to that Convention should be elected by all Frenchmen twenty-one years old or more, domiciled for a year and living by the product of their labor. The National Convention was, therefore, the first French assembly elected by asuffrage without distinctions of class.^[45]

Although the Convention lasted until 1795, power was effectively delegated by the convention and concentrated in the smallCommittee of Public Safety from April 1793. The eight months from the fall of 1793 to the spring of 1794, whenMaximilien Robespierre and his allies dominated the Committee of Public Safety, represent the most radical and bloodiest phase of the French Revolution, known as theReign of Terror. After thefall of Robespierre, the Convention lasted for another year until a new constitution was written, ushering in theFrench Directory.

The Directory (also called Directorate) was the governing five-membercommittee in theFrench First Republic from 26 October 1795 (4Brumaire an IV) until 10 November 1799, when it was overthrown byNapoleon Bonaparte in theCoup of 18 Brumaire and replaced by theConsulate.Directoire is the name of the final four years of theFrench Revolution. Mainstream historiography^[46] also uses the term in reference to the period from the dissolution of theNational Convention on 26 October 1795 to Napoleon's coup d’état.

The Directory was continually at war with foreign coalitions, includingBritain,Austria,Prussia, theKingdom of Naples,Russia and theOttoman Empire. It annexedBelgium and theleft bank of the Rhine, while Bonaparte conquered a large part of Italy. The Directory established 29 short-livedsister republics in Italy,Switzerland and theNetherlands. The conquered cities and states were required to send France huge amounts of money, as well as art treasures, which were used to fill the newLouvre museum in Paris. An army led by Bonapartetried to conquerEgypt and marched as far asSaint-Jean-d'Acre inSyria. The Directory defeated a resurgence of theWar in the Vendée, the royalist-led civil war in theVendée region, but failed in its venture to support theIrish Rebellion of 1798 and create an Irish Republic.

The French economy was in continual crisis during the Directory. At the beginning, the treasury was empty; the paper money, theAssignat, had fallen to a fraction of its value, and prices soared. The Directory stopped printing assignats and restored the value of the money, but this caused a new crisis; prices and wages fell, and economic activity slowed to a standstill.

In its first two years, the Directory concentrated on ending the excesses of theJacobinReign of Terror; mass executions stopped, and measures taken against exiled priests and royalists were relaxed. The Jacobin political club was closed on 12 November 1794 and the government crushed an armed uprising planned by the Jacobins and an early socialist revolutionary,François-Noël Babeuf, known as "Gracchus Babeuf". But after the discovery of a royalist conspiracy including a prominent general,Jean-Charles Pichegru, the Jacobins took charge of the new Councils and hardened the measures against the Church and émigrés. They took two additional seats in the Directory, hopelessly dividing it.

In 1799, after several defeats, French victories in the Netherlands and Switzerland restored the French military position, but the Directory had lost all the political factions' support, including some of its Directors. Bonaparte returned from Egypt in October, and was engaged byAbbé Sieyès and others to carry out a parliamentary coup d'état on 9–10 November 1799. The coup abolished the Directory and replaced it with theFrench Consulate led by Bonaparte.

TheFrench Revolutionary Wars were a series of sweeping military conflicts lasting from 1792 until 1802 and resulting from theFrench Revolution. They pittedFrance againstBritain,Austria,Prussia,Russia, and several othermonarchies. They are divided in two periods: theWar of the First Coalition (1792–1797) and theWar of the Second Coalition (1798–1802). Initially confined to Europe, the fighting gradually assumed a global dimension. After a decade of constant warfare and aggressive diplomacy, France had conquered territories in theItalian Peninsula, theLow Countries and theRhineland. French success in these conflicts ensured the spread of revolutionary principles over much of Europe.^[47]

Initially, the rulers of Europe viewed theFrench Revolution as a dispute between the French king and his subjects, and not something in which they should interfere. As revolutionary rhetoric grew more strident, they declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe as one with the interests ofLouis XVI and his family; thisDeclaration of Pillnitz (27 August 1791) threatened ambiguous, but quite serious, consequences if anything should happen to the royal family. The position of the revolutionaries became increasingly difficult. Compounding their problems in international relations, French émigrés continued to agitate for support of a counter-revolution. Finally, on 20 April 1792, theFrench National Convention declared war on Austria. In thisWar of the First Coalition (1792–98), France ranged itself against most of the European states sharing land or water borders with her, plusPortugal and theOttoman Empire.^[48]

Despite some victories in 1792, by early 1793, France was in terrible crisis: French forces had been pushed out of Belgium; also there wasrevolt in the Vendée over conscription; widespread resentment of theCivil Constitution of the Clergy; and the French king had just been executed. The armies of the French Republic were in a state of disruption; the problems became even more acute following the introduction of mass conscription, thelevée en masse, which saturated an already distressed army with thousands of illiterate, untrained men.^[49]

TheCommittee of Public Safety was formed (6 April 1793) and thelevée en masse drafted all potential soldiers aged 18 to 25 (August 1793). The new French armies had better results. Inseveral campaigns during 1794, the French won the battles ofKortrijk,Tourcoing andFleurus in June. The French armies drove the Austrians, British, and Dutch beyond theRhine, occupying Belgium, theRhineland, and the south of theNetherlands..

In the1795 military campaigns, although theRhine Campaign of 1795 proved to be disastrous, the French achieved success in other theaters of war such as theWar of the Pyrenees (1793–95).^[48] The French established theBatavian Republic as asister republic (May 1795) and gained Prussian recognition of French control of theLeft Bank of the Rhine by the firstPeace of Basel. With theTreaty of Campo Formio, Austria ceded the Austrian Netherlands to France and Northern Italy was turned into several French sister republics. Spain made a separate peace accord with France, theSecond Treaty of Basel, and theFrench Directory annexed more of theHoly Roman Empire.

In the1796 military campaigns,Napoleon Bonaparte, at the time serving as a commander in the French Army, was successful in a daring invasion of Italy. In theMontenotte Campaign, he separated the armies ofSardinia andAustria, defeating each one in turn, and then forced apeace on Sardinia. Following this, his army capturedMilan and started theSiege of Mantua. Bonaparte defeated successive Austrian armies sent against him underJohann Peter Beaulieu,Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser andJózsef Alvinczi while continuing the siege.^[50][51]

In the1797 military campaigns, Bonaparte carried all before him againstSardinia and Austria in northern Italy (1796–1797) near thePo Valley, culminating in thePeace of Leoben and theTreaty of Campo Formio (October 1797). The First Coalition collapsed, leaving only Britain in the field fighting against France.

The consulate was the top-level Government of France from the fall of theDirectory in thecoup of 18 Brumaire on 10 November 1799 until the start of theNapoleonic Empire on 18 May 1804. By extension, the termThe Consulate also refers to this period ofFrench history.

During this period,Napoleon Bonaparte, as First Consul (Premier consul), established himself as the head of a moreauthoritarian,autocratic, andcentralizedrepublican government in France while not declaring himself sole ruler. Due to the long-lasting institutions established during these years, historian Robert B. Holtman has called the Consulate "one of the most important periods of all French history."^[52] By the end of this period, Napoleon had engineered authoritarian personal rule which has been viewed asmilitary dictatorship.^[53]

The First French Empire, officially the French Republic,^[d] then the French Empire after 1809 and also known as Napoleonic France, was theempire ruled byNapoleon Bonaparte, who established Frenchhegemony over much ofcontinental Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. It lasted from 18 May 1804 to 3 May 1814 and again briefly from 20 March 1815 to 7 July 1815.^[55]

Although France had already established acolonial empire overseas since the early 17th century, the French state had remained akingdom under the Bourbons and arepublic after theFrench Revolution. Historians refer to Napoleon's regime as theFirst Empire to distinguish it from the restorationistSecond Empire (1852–1870) ruled by his nephewNapoleon III. The First French Empire is considered by some to be a "Republican empire."^[56]

On 18 May 1804, Napoleon was granted the titleEmperor of the French (Empereur des Français) by the FrenchSénat conservateur and was crowned on 2 December 1804,^[57] signifying the end of theFrench Consulate and of theFrench First Republic. Despite his coronation, the state continued to be formally called the "French Republic" until October 1808. The Empire achieved military supremacy in mainland Europe through notable victories in theWar of the Third Coalition againstAustria,Prussia,Russia,Britain and allied states, notably at theBattle of Austerlitz in 1805.^[58] French dominance was reaffirmed during theWar of the Fourth Coalition, at theBattle of Jena–Auerstedt in 1806 and theBattle of Friedland in 1807,^[59] before Napoleon's final defeat at theBattle of Waterloo in 1815.

A series of wars, known collectively as theNapoleonic Wars, extended French influence to much of Western Europe and into Poland. At its height in 1812, the French Empire had130 departments, ruled over 44 million subjects, maintained an extensive military presence inGermany,Italy,Spain, andPoland, and counted Austria and Prussia as nominal allies.^[60] Early French victories exported many ideological features of the Revolution throughout Europe: the introduction of theNapoleonic Code throughout the continent increased legal equality, established jury systems and legalized divorce, andseigneurial dues and seigneurial justice were abolished, as werearistocratic privileges in all places except Poland.^[61]

France's defeat in 1814 (and then again in 1815), marked the end of the First French Empire and the beginning of theBourbon Restoration.

The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of conflicts fought between theFirst French Empire underNapoleon (1804–1815), and a fluctuating array ofEuropean coalitions. The wars originated in political forces arising from theFrench Revolution (1789–1799) and from theFrench Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802) (theWar of the First Coalition (1792–1797) and theWar of the Second Coalition (1798–1802)), and produced a period of French domination overContinental Europe. There were seven Napoleonic Wars, five named after the coalitions that fought Napoleon, plus two named for their respective theatres: (i) theWar of the Third Coalition (1803–1806), (ii) theWar of the Fourth Coalition (1806–1807), (iii) theWar of the Fifth Coalition (1809), (iv) theWar of the Sixth Coalition (1813–1814), (v) theWar of the Seventh Coalition (1815), (vi) thePeninsular War (1807–1814), and (vii) theFrench invasion of Russia (1812).

Upon realising theCoup of 18 Brumaire, whereby he became theFirst Consul of France in 1799, Napoleon assumed control of the politically chaoticFrench First Republic. He then organised a financially stable French state with a strong bureaucracy and a professional army. War broke out soon after, withBritain declaring war on France on 18 May 1803, ending thePeace of Amiens, and forming a coalition made up of itself,Sweden,Russia,Naples, andSicily.Frank McLynn argues that Britain went to war in 1803 out of a "mixture of economic motives and national neuroses—an irrational anxiety about Napoleon's motives and intentions." The British fleet under AdmiralNelson decisively crushed the joint Franco-Spanish navy in theBattle of Trafalgar in October 1805. This victory secured Britishcontrol of the seas and prevented a plannedinvasion of Britain. In December 1805, Napoleon defeated the allied Russo-Austrian army atAusterlitz, effectively ending the Third Coalition and forcing Austria to make peace. Concerned about increasing French power,Prussia led the creation of the Fourth Coalition with Russia,Saxony, and Sweden, which resumed war in October 1806. Napoleon soon defeated the Prussians atJena-Auerstedt and the Russians atFriedland, bringing anuneasy peace to the continent. The treaty failed to end the tension, and war broke out again in 1809, with the badly prepared Fifth Coalition, led by Austria. At first, the Austrians won a significant victory atAspern-Essling, but were quickly defeated atWagram.

Hoping to isolate and weaken Britain economically through hisContinental System, Napoleon launched aninvasion of Portugal, the only remaining British ally in continental Europe. After occupyingLisbon in November 1807, and with the bulk of French troops present in Spain, Napoleon seized the opportunity to turn against his former ally, depose the reigningSpanish royal family and declare his brother King of Spain in 1808 asJosé I. The Spanish and Portuguese revolted with British support and expelled the French from Iberia in 1814 aftersix years of fighting.

Concurrently, Russia, unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade, routinely violated the Continental System, prompting Napoleon to launch amassive invasion of Russia in 1812. The resulting campaign ended in disaster for France and the near-destruction of Napoleon'sGrande Armée.

Encouraged by the defeat, Austria, Prussia, Sweden, and Russia formed the Sixth Coalition and began a new campaign against France, decisively defeating Napoleon atLeipzig in October 1813 after several inconclusive engagements. The Allies theninvaded France from the east, while the Peninsular Warspilled over into southwestern France. Coalition troops capturedParis at the end of March 1814 andforced Napoleon to abdicate in April. He was exiled to the island ofElba, and theBourbons were restored to power. However, Napoleon escaped in February 1815, and reassumed control of France for around OneHundred Days. The allies formed the Seventh Coalition, defeated him atWaterloo in June 1815, and exiled him to the island ofSaint Helena, where he died six years later.^[62]

The wars had profound consequences on global history, including the spread ofnationalism andliberalism, advancements incivil law, the rise of Britain as the world'sforemost naval and economic power, the appearance ofindependence movements inSpanish America and subsequent decline of theSpanish andPortuguese Empires, the fundamental reorganization of German and Italian territories into larger states, and the introduction of radically new methods of conducting warfare. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, theCongress of Vienna redrew Europe's borders and broughta relative peace to the continent, lasting until theCrimean War in 1853.

The Bourbon Restoration was the period ofFrench history during which theHouse of Bourbon returned to power after the first fall ofNapoleon on 3 May 1814. Briefly interrupted by theHundred Days in 1815, the Restoration continued until theJuly Revolution of 26 July 1830. The monarchy was again restored after the July Revolution, and continued until 1848.

Louis XVIII andCharles X, brothers of the executed KingLouis XVI, successively mounted the throne and instituted a conservative government intended to restore the proprieties, if not all the institutions, of theAncien Régime. Exiled supporters of the monarchy returned to France but were unable to reverse most of the changes made by theFrench Revolution. Exhausted bydecades of war, the nation experienced a period of internal and external peace, stable economic prosperity and the preliminaries of industrialization.^[63]

After theJuly Revolution of 1830, royal power was once again secured and the July Monarchy was established. The July Monarchy governed under principles of moderate conservatism, and improved relations with theUK. The July Revolution was a second French Revolution. It led to the overthrow of KingCharles X, the FrenchBourbon monarch, and the ascent of his cousinLouis Philippe, Duke of Orléans. After 18 precarious years on the throne, Louis-Philippe was overthrown in theFrench Revolution of 1848.

The 1830 Revolution marked a shift from oneconstitutional monarchy, under therestored House of Bourbon, to another, the July Monarchy; the transition of power from the House of Bourbon to itscadet branch, theHouse of Orléans; and the replacement of the principle ofhereditary right by that ofpopular sovereignty. Supporters of the Bourbons would be calledLegitimists, and supporters of Louis Philippe were known asOrléanists. In addition, there continued to beBonapartists supporting the return of Napoleon's descendants.

The July Monarchy, officially the Kingdom of France, was aliberalconstitutional monarchy in France underLouis Philippe I, starting on 26 July 1830, with theJuly Revolution of 1830, and ending 23 February 1848, with theRevolution of 1848. It marks the end of theBourbon Restoration (1814–1830). It began with the overthrow of the conservative government ofCharles X, the last king of the main lineHouse of Bourbon.

Louis Philippe, a member of the more liberalOrléans branch of the House of Bourbon, proclaimed himself asRoi des Français ("King of the French") rather than "King of France", emphasizing the popular origins of his reign. The king promised to follow thejuste milieu, or the middle-of-the-road, avoiding the extremes of both the conservative supporters of Charles X and radicals on the left.

The July Monarchy was dominated by wealthybourgeoisie and numerous formerNapoleonic officials. It followed conservative policies, especially under the influence (1840–48) ofFrançois Guizot. The king promoted friendship with theUnited Kingdom and sponsored colonial expansion, notably theFrench conquest of Algeria. By 1848,a year in which many European states had a revolution, the king's popularity had collapsed, and he abdicated.

The French Second Republic, officially the French Republic, was the secondrepublican government ofFrance. It existed from 1848 until its dissolution in 1852.

In 1848,Europe erupted into a mass revolutionary wave in which many citizens challenged their royal leaders. Caught up in the revolutionary wave, France underwent theFebruary Revolution that overthrew the July Monarchy ofKing Louis-Phillipe,^[64] Radical and liberal factions of the population convened the French Second Republic in 1848. Attempting to restore the First French Republic's values on human rights and constitutional government, they adopted the motto of theFirst Republic;Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité. The republic was plagued with tribalist tendencies of its leading factions: royalists, proto-socialists, liberals, and conservatives. In this environment, the nephew of Napoleon, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, established himself as a popular anti-establishment figure. He was elected as president in 1848. Under the Second Republic's constitution, the president was restricted to a single term.

Louis-Napoléon overthrew the republic in an1851 coup d'état, proclaimed himself EmperorNapoleon III, and created theSecond French Empire.

The coup d'état of 2 December 1851 was aself-coup staged by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (laterNapoleon III), at the timePresident of France under theSecond Republic. Code-named Operation Rubicon and timed to coincide with the anniversary ofNapoleon I's coronation and victory atAusterlitz, the coup dissolved theNational Assembly, granted dictatorial powers to the president and preceded the establishment of theSecond French Empire a year later, which lasted until 1870.

Faced with the prospect of having to leave office in 1852, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (nephew ofNapoleon Bonaparte) staged the coup in order to stay in power and implement his reform programs; these included the restoration ofuniversal male suffrage previously abolished by the legislature. The continuation of his authority and the power to produce a new constitution were approved days later by aconstitutional referendum, resulting in theConstitution of 1852, which greatly increased the powers and the term length of the president. A year after the coup, Bonaparte proclaimed himself "Emperor of the French" under theregnal name Napoleon III.

The Second French Empire, officially the "French Empire," was an ImperialBonapartist regime ofNapoleon III from 14 January 1852 to 27 October 1870, between theSecond and theThird Republic ofFrance. The Second French Empire oversaw some of the most significant achievements in infrastructure and economy, and reasserted itself as the dominant power in Europe for a decade.

Historians in the 1930s and 1940s often disparaged the Second Empire as aprecursor of fascism,^[65] but by the late 20th century it emerged as an example of amodernising regime.^[66][67]

Historians have generally given the Second Empire negative evaluations on its foreign policy, and somewhat more positive evaluations of domestic policies, especially after Napoleon III liberalised his rule after 1858. He promoted French business and exports. The greatest achievements included a grandrailway network that facilitated commerce and tied the nation together withParis as its hub. This stimulated economic growth and brought prosperity to most regions of the country. The Second Empire is given high credit for therebuilding of Paris with broadboulevards, striking public buildings and elegant residential districts for higher class Parisians.

In international policy, Napoleon III tried to emulate his uncleNapoleon I, engaging in numerousimperial ventures around the world as well asseveral wars in Europe. He began his reign with French victoriesin Crimea andin Italy, gainingSavoy andNice.

Using very harsh methods, he built up the French Empire inFrench North Africa and inFrench Indochina in Southeast Asia. Napoleon III also launched anintervention in Mexico seeking to erect aSecond Mexican Empire and bring it into the French orbit, but this ended in a fiasco.

He badly mishandled the threat fromPrussia, and by the end of his reign, the French emperor found himself without allies in the face of overwhelming German force.^[68] His rule was ended during theFranco-Prussian War, when he was captured by thePrussian Army atSedan in 1870, and dethroned by French republicans. He died in exile in 1873 in England.

The French Third Republic was the system of government adopted inFrance from 4 September 1870, when theSecond French Empire collapsed during theFranco-Prussian War, until 10 July 1940, after theFall of France duringWorld War II led to the formation of theVichy government.

The early days of the Third Republic were dominated by political disruptions caused by theFranco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, which the Republic continued to wage after the fall of EmperorNapoleon III in 1870. Harsh reparations exacted by the Prussians after the war resulted in the loss of the French regions ofAlsace (keeping theTerritoire de Belfort) andLorraine (the northeastern part, i.e. present-daydepartment of Moselle), social upheaval, and the establishment of theParis Commune. The early governments of the Third Republic considered re-establishing the monarchy, but disagreement as to the nature of that monarchy and the rightful occupant of the throne could not be resolved. Consequently, the Third Republic, originally envisioned as aprovisional government, instead became the permanent form of government of France.

TheFrench Constitutional Laws of 1875 defined the composition of the Third Republic. It consisted of aChamber of Deputies and aSenate to form the legislative branch of government and apresident to serve as head of state. Calls for the re-establishment of the monarchy dominated the tenures of the first two presidents,Adolphe Thiers andPatrice de MacMahon, but growing support for the republican form of government among the French populace and a series of republican presidents in the 1880s gradually quashed prospects of a monarchical restoration.

The Third Republic established manyFrench colonial possessions, includingFrench Indochina,French Madagascar,French Polynesia, and large territories inWest Africa during theScramble for Africa, all of them acquired during the last two decades of the 19th century. The early years of the 20th century were dominated by theDemocratic Republican Alliance, which was originally conceived as acentre-left political alliance, but over time became the maincentre-right party.

The period from the start ofWorld War I to the late 1930s featured sharply polarized politics, between the Democratic Republican Alliance and theRadicals. The government fell less than a year after the outbreak of World War II, when Nazi forcesoccupied much of France, and was replaced by the rival governments ofCharles de Gaulle'sFree France (La France libre) andPhilippe Pétain'sFrench State (L'État français).

During the 19th and 20th centuries, the French colonial empire was the second largest colonial empire in the world only behind theBritish Empire; it extended over 13,500,000 km² (5,200,000 sq mi) of land at its height in the 1920s and 1930s. In terms of population however, on the eve of World War II, France and its colonial possessions totaled only 150 million inhabitants, compared with 330 million forBritish India alone.

Adolphe Thiers called republicanism in the 1870s "the form of government that divides France least"; however, politics under the Third Republic were sharply polarized. On the left stood reformist France, heir to theFrench Revolution. On the right stood conservative France, rooted in the peasantry, the Roman Catholic Church, and the army.^[69] In spite of France's sharply divided electorate and persistent attempts to overthrow it, the Third Republic endured for seventy years, which as of 2023^[update] makes it the longest lasting system of government in France since the collapse of theAncien Régime in 1789.^[70]

The French Fourth Republic was therepublicangovernment ofFrance from 27 October 1946 to 4 October 1958, governed by the fourth republican constitution of 13 October 1946. It was in many ways a revival of theThird Republic, which governed from 1870 during theFranco-Prussian War to 1940 duringWorld War II, and it suffered many of the same problems.

Despite political dysfunction, the Fourth Republic saw an era of greateconomic growth in France and the rebuilding of the nation's socialinstitutions andindustry after World War II, with assistance from the United States through theMarshall Plan. It also saw the beginning of therapprochement with France's longtime enemyGermany, which led to Franco-German co-operation and eventually to theEuropean Union.

The new constitution made some attempts to strengthen theexecutive branch of government to prevent the unstable situation before the war, but instability remained and the Fourth Republic saw frequent changes of government – there were 21 administrations in its 12-year history. Moreover, the government proved unable to make effective decisions regardingdecolonization of the numerous remainingFrench colonies. After a series of crises culminating in theAlgerian crisis of 1958, the Fourth Republiccollapsed.Wartime leaderCharles de Gaulle returned from retirement to preside over a transitional administration empowered to design a newFrench constitution. The Fourth Republic was dissolved on 5 October 1958 following a publicreferendum which established the currentFifth Republic with a strengthenedpresidency.

The May 1958 crisis, also known as the "Algiers putsch" or "the coup of 13 May" was a political crisis inFrance during the turmoil of theAlgerian War of Independence (1954–1962) which led to the collapse of theFourth Republic and its replacement by theFifth Republic led byCharles de Gaulle who returned to power after a twelve-year absence. It started as a political uprising inAlgiers on 13 May 1958 and then became a militarycoup d'état led by a coalition headed byAlgiers deputy and reserve airborne officerPierre Lagaillarde, French GeneralsRaoul Salan,Edmond Jouhaud, Jean Gracieux, andJacques Massu, and by AdmiralPhilippe Auboyneau, commander of the Mediterranean fleet. The coup was supported by former Algerian Governor GeneralJacques Soustelle and his activist allies.

The coup had as its aim to oppose the formation ofPierre Pflimlin's new government and to impose a change of policies in favor of the right-wing partisans ofFrench Algeria.

After his tour as Governor General,Jacques Soustelle had returned to France to organize support for de Gaulle's return to power, while retaining close ties to the army and the settlers. By early 1958, he had organized a coup d'état, bringing together dissident army officers and colonial officials with sympatheticGaullists. On 13 May, right-wing elements seized power in Algiers and called for a Government of Public Safety under General de Gaulle. Massu became chairman of the Public Safety Committee and one of the leaders of the revolt.^[71]General Salan assumed leadership of aCommittee of Public Safety^[72] formed to replace the civil authority and pressed thejunta's demands that de Gaulle be named by French presidentRené Coty to head a government of national union invested with extraordinary powers to prevent the "abandonment of Algeria".

Salan announced on radio that the Army had "provisionally taken over responsibility for the destiny of French Algeria". Under the pressure of Massu, Salan declaredVive de Gaulle! from the balcony of the Algiers Government-General building on 15 May. De Gaulle answered two days later that he was ready to "assume the powers of the Republic".^[73] Many worried as they saw this answer as support for the army.^{[71]: 373–416} At a 19 May press conference, de Gaulle asserted again that he was at the disposal of the country. When a journalist expressed the concerns of some who feared that he would violate civil liberties, de Gaulle retorted vehemently:

Have I ever done that? Quite the opposite, I have reestablished them when they had disappeared. Who honestly believes that, at age 67, I would start a career as a dictator?^[71]

On 24 May, Frenchparatroopers from Algeria landed onCorsica by aircraft, taking the French island in a bloodless action called "Opération Corse." Subsequently, preparations were made in Algeria for "Operation Resurrection," which had as objectives the seizure of Paris and the removal of the French government, through the use of paratroopers and armoured forces based atRambouillet.^[74] "Operation Resurrection" was to be implemented if one of three scenarios occurred: if de Gaulle was not approved as leader of France by Parliament, if de Gaulle asked for military assistance to take power, or if it seemed that theFrench Communist Party was making any move to take power in France.^[75]

Political leaders on many sides agreed to support the General's return to power with the notable exceptions ofFrançois Mitterrand, who was a minister inGuy Mollet's Socialist government,Pierre Mendès-France (a member of theRadical-Socialist Party, former Prime Minister),Alain Savary (also a member of theFrench Section of the Workers' International (SFIO)), and the Communist Party. The philosopherJean-Paul Sartre, a noted atheist, said, "I would rather vote for God", as he would at least be more modest than de Gaulle. Mendès-France and Savary, opposed to their respective parties' support of de Gaulle, would form together, in 1960, theParti socialiste autonome (PSA, Socialist Autonomous Party), ancestor of theParti socialiste unifié (PSU, Unified Socialist Party).^[76]

On 29 May President René Coty told parliament that the nation was on the brink of civil war, so he was "turning towards the most illustrious of Frenchmen, towards the man who, in the darkest years of our history, was our chief for the reconquest of freedom and who refused dictatorship in order to re-establish the Republic. I ask General de Gaulle to confer with the head of state and to examine with him what, in the framework of Republican legality, is necessary for the immediate formation of a government of national safety and what can be done, in a fairly short time, for a deep reform of our institutions."^[77]

De Gaulle accepted Coty's proposal under the precondition that a new constitution would be introduced creating a powerful presidency in which a sole executive, the first of which was to be himself, ruled for seven-year periods. Another condition was that he be grantedextraordinary powers for a period of six months.^[78]

De Gaulle's newly formed cabinet was approved by the National Assembly on 1 June 1958, by 329 votes against 224, while he was granted the power to govern byordinances for a six-month period as well as the task to draft a new Constitution.^[78]

The May 1958 crisis indicated that the Fourth Republic by 1958 no longer had any support from the French army in Algeria, and was at its mercy even in civilian political matters. This decisive shift in the balance of power in civil-military relations in France in 1958 and the threat of force was the main immediate factor in the return of de Gaulle to power in France.

During theFifth Republic, founded in 1958 amid the troubles brought by theAlgerian War (1954–62), France was ruled by successiveright-wing administrations until 1981.The successive governments generally applied theGaullist program of national independence, and modernization in adirigiste fashion.

The political instability characteristic of the Fourth Republic was gone. The far-right extremists who had threatened military coups over the question ofFrench Algeria largely receded after Algeria was granted independence. TheFrench Communist Party's image gradually became less radical. Politics largely turned into a Gaullists vs left-wing opposition.^[79]

The Gaullist government, however, was criticized for its heavy-handedness: while elections were free, the state had a monopoly on radio and TV broadcasting and sought to have its point of view on events imposed (this monopoly was not absolute, however, since there were radio stations transmitting from nearby countries specifically for the benefit of the French).

Although Gaullism, which had gained legitimacy duringWorld War II, initially also attracted several left-wing individuals, Gaullism in government became decidedly conservative.

In 1962, de Gaulle had the French citizens vote in areferendum concerning the election of the president at universal suffrage, something which had been discredited sinceNapoleon III's1851 coup.3/5 of the voters approved however the referendum, and thereafter thePresident of the French Republic was elected at universal suffrage, giving him increased authority on the Parliament. De Gaulle won the1965 presidential election, opposed on his left byFrançois Mitterrand who had taken the lead of theFederation of the Democratic and Socialist Left, a coalition of most left-wing parties (apart from theFrench Communist Party, then led byWaldeck Rochet who did call to vote for Mitterrand).

In May 1968, a series of worker strikes and student riots rocked France. These did not, however, result in an immediate change of government, with a right-wing administration being triumphantly reelected in the snapelection of June 1968.However, in 1969 the French electorate turned down areferendum on the reform of the French Senate proposed by de Gaulle. Since the latter had always declared that in the eventuality of a "NO" to a referendum he would resign, the referendum was also aplebiscite.Thus, the rejection of the reform by more than 52% of the voters was widely considered to be mostly motivated by weariness with de Gaulle, and ultimately provoked his resignation that year.

May '68 and its aftermaths saw the occupation of theLIP factory inBesançon, one of the major social conflict of the 1970s, during which theCFDT and theUnified Socialist Party, of whichPierre Mendès-France was a member, theorizedworkers' self-management.A part of the PSU, theautonomist movement, inspired by Italianoperaismo, made its first appearance on the political scene.

Georges Pompidou, de Gaulle's Prime Minister, waselected in 1969, remaining President until his death in 1974.In 1972,3/5 of the French approved by referendum the enlargement of theEuropean Economic Community (CEE) to the United Kingdom, Denmark, Ireland, and Norway.

After Pompidou's sudden death,Valéry Giscard d'Estaing managed to overhaul the remaining Gaullist barons – with the help ofJacques Chirac —, and won thesubsequent election againstFrançois Mitterrand on the left.Giscard transformed theORTF, the state organism in charge of media, and created several different channels, includingRadio France.However, it was not untilFrançois Mitterrand's accession to theÉlysée Palace in 1981 that media were liberalized.

In 1981,François Mitterrand, aSocialist, waselected president, on a program of far-reaching reforms (110 Propositions for France). This was enabled by the 1972 Common Program between thePS, thePRG and thePCF – which had remained, just as inItaly, a strong party throughout theCold War. Mitterrand served until 1995.

After securing a majority in parliament througha snap election, his government ran a program of social and economic reforms:

• social policies:
  • abolition of the death penalty;
  • removal of legislation criminalizing certainhomosexual behaviors: lowering of the age of consent for homosexual sex to that for heterosexual sex (since theFrench Revolution, France had never criminalized homosexuality between adults in private)^[80]
  • liberalization of media
  • creation of asolidarity tax on wealth (ISF) and reform of theinheritance tax
• economic policies:
  • the government embarked on a wave ofnationalizations;
  • the duration of the legal workweek was set to39 hours, instead of the previous 40 hours.
  • increase of the SMICminimum wages
• institutional reforms:
  • repealing of exceptional judicial procedures (courts-martial in peace-time, etc.)

However, in 1983, high inflation and economic woes forced a dramatic turnaround with respect toeconomic policies, known asrigueur (rigor) – the Socialist-Communist government then embarked on policies of fiscal and spending restraint.Though the nationalizations were subsequently reversed by both subsequent left-wing and right-wing governments, the social reforms undertaken have remained standing.

Furthermore, the end of theTrente Glorieuses (Thirty Glorious) period of growth witnesses the beginning of astructural unemployment, which became an important political issue.Since the 1980s, unemployment has remained permanently high, at about 10% of the population, regardless of the policies applied to fight it.

In 1986,Jacques Chirac's neo-GaullistRally for the Republic (RPR) party won thelegislative election.

For the first time in the Fifth Republic, a left-wing President was forced to work together with a right-wing Prime minister, leading to the firstcohabitation. Although many commentators were surprised at the time, and considered it to be an institutional crisis, some claiming the Fifth Republic could not accommodate itself of such rivalry at the head of the state, cohabitation repeated itself after the1993 elections, when the RPR again won the elections, and then after the1997 elections, when the Socialist Party won, leading to the constitution ofLionel Jospin'sPlural Left government while Chirac was only at the beginning of his first presidential term.

The tradition in periods of "cohabitation" (a President of one party, prime minister of another) is for the President to exercise the primary role in foreign and security policy, with the dominant role in domestic policy falling to the prime minister and his government. Jospin stated, however, that he would nota priori leave any domain exclusively to the President, as that was a tradition issued from de Gaulle.

Since then, the government alternated between a left-wing coalition (composed of theFrench Socialist Party (PS), theFrench Communist Party (PCF) and more recentlyLes Verts, the Greens) and a right-wing coalition (composed ofJacques Chirac'sRally for the Republic (RPR), later replaced by theUnion for a Popular Movement (UMP), and theUnion for French Democracy, UDF).Those two coalitions are fairly stable; there have been none of the mid-term coalition reorganizations and governments frequently overthrown which were commonplace under the Fourth Republic.

The 1980s and 1990s saw also the rise ofJean-Marie Le Pen'sNational Front (FN), afar-right party which blames immigration, more particularly immigration from North African countries such asAlgeria, for increasedunemployment and crime.The social situation in the French suburbs (banlieues: literally, "suburbs", but in France a euphemism for large suburban housing projects for the poor, with a high proportion of the population of North African descent) still have to be successfully tackled.Jean-Marie Le Pen's relative success at theFrench Presidential election, 2002 has been attributed in part to concerns about juvenile criminality.

Massive general strikes followed by all the trade-unions were triggered in November–December 1995, paralyzing France, in protest against theJuppé plan oflibéral (in French, free market) reforms.These strikes were generally considered a turning point in the French social movement.It remains to be seen how much of these reforms will now be enacted by Sarkozy's first government, as Sarkozy was elected president on a similar platform in May 2007.

During his first two years in office, PresidentJacques Chirac's prime minister wasAlain Juppé, who served contemporaneously as leader of Chirac's neo-GaullistRally for the Republic (RPR). Chirac and Juppé benefited from a very large, if rather unruly, majority in the National Assembly (470 out of 577 seats).

Mindful that the government might have to take politically costly decisions in advance of the legislative elections planned for spring 1998 in order to ensure that France met theMaastricht criteria for the singlecurrency of the EU, Chirac decided in April 1997 to callearly elections.

The Left, led bySocialist Party leaderLionel Jospin, whom Chirac had defeated in the1995 presidential race, unexpectedly won a solid National Assembly majority (319 seats, with 289 required for an absolute majority). President Chirac named Jospin prime minister on 2 June, and Jospin went on to form aPlural Left government composed primarily of Socialist ministers, along with some ministers from allied parties of the left, such as theCommunist Party and theGreens.

Jospin stated his support for continued European integration and his intention to keep France on the path towards Economic and Monetary Union, albeit with greater attention to social concerns.

Chirac and Jospin worked together, for the most part, in the foreign affairs field with representatives of the presidency and the government pursuing a single, agreed French policy. Their "cohabitation" arrangement was the longest-lasting in the history of the Fifth Republic.

However, it ended subsequent to the legislative elections that followed Chirac's decisive defeat of Jospin (who failed even to make it through to the runoff) in the2002 presidential election.

This led to President Chirac's appointment ofJean-Pierre Raffarin (UMP) as the new prime minister.

On 29 May 2005, French voters in thereferendum on theTreaty establishing a Constitution for Europe turned down the proposed charter by a wide margin.

This was generally regarded as a rebuke to Chirac and his government as well as the PS leadership, the majority save for the leftist faction andLaurent Fabius – had supported the proposed constitution.Two days later, Raffarin resigned and Chirac appointedDominique de Villepin, formerlyForeign Minister as Prime Minister of France.

An enduring force isJean-Marie Le Pen'sNational Front party, whose anti-immigration, isolationist policies have been described by critics as inspired byxenophobia. Le Pen's survival into the runoff of 2002 had many observers worried this time, but in the2007 first round Le Pen finished a distant fourth.

The 23 February 2005French law on colonialism was met by a public uproar on the left-wing. Voted by the UMP majority, it was charged with advocatinghistorical revisionism, and after long debates and international opposition (fromAbdelaziz Bouteflika orAimé Césaire, founder of theNégritude movement), was repealed byJacques Chirac himself.

In Autumn 2005,civil unrest erupted in a number of lower classes suburbs due to the violence of the police. As a result, the government invoked astate of emergency which lasted until January 2006.

In 2006, Prime MinisterDominique de Villepin enacted amendments that established aFirst Employment Contract, known as the CPE, a special kind of employment contract under which workers under the age of 26 could be hired and fired liberally.

Proponents of the measure argued that French workforce laws, which put the burden of proof on the employer for dismissing employees, dissuaded employers from hiring new employees; according to them, this is one reason while theunemployment rate of those under 26 is 23% and that of youngsters from somelower classes neighbourhoods as high as 40%, and not the refusal of exploitation to enrich the wealthy class.

However, the plan backfired, with criticism both on the way the law was passed (using an exceptional legislative procedure) and on the law itself, which was criticized both for weakening workers' rights in general, and for singling out the young disfavourably instead of attempting to cure more general issues. Following the2006 protests against the CPE, the government had to withdraw the legislation.

Following from these events, Villepin lost all hopes of winning the presidency, and his government no longer tried to enact reforms.

ConservativeNicolas Sarkozy was elected and took office on 16 May 2007.^[81] The problem of high unemployment has yet to be resolved. Sarkozy was very actively involved in themilitary operation in Libya to oust theGaddafi government in 2011.^[82]

In2012 election for president, SocialistFrançois Hollande defeated Sarkozy's try for reelection.^[83] Hollande advocated a growth policy in contrast to the austerity policy advocated by Germany'sAngela Merkel as a way of dealing with theEuro area crisis. In 2014, Hollande stood with Merkel and US President Obama in imposing sanctions on Russia for its actions against Ukraine. In December 2016, Hollande announced he will not seek re-election as president of France.^[84]

In the2017 election for president the winner wasEmmanuel Macron, the founder of a new party "La République En Marche!". It declared itself above left and right. He called parliamentary elections that brought him the absolute majority of députés. He appointed a prime minister from the centre right, and ministers from both the centre left and centre right.^[85]

In the2022 presidential election president Macron was re-elected after beating his far-right rival,Marine Le Pen, in the runoff.^[86] He was the first re-elected incumbent French president since 2002.^[87]

In May 2022, President Emmanuel Macron's centrist party, La République en Marche, changed its name toRenaissance.^[88] However, Macron's coalition lost its parliamentary majority inJune 2022 election, meaning the first time in 20 years that French president lost absolute majority in parliament.^[89] Macron's centre-right alliance won 234 seats, the leftist coalition 141 seats, the far-rightNational Rally 90 seats, and the conservativeLes Républicains and its allies 75 seats.^[90] The opposition left-wing coalition has been dominated byLa France Insoumise (LFI) and its leaderJean-Luc Mélenchon. The other members of the left-wing alliance are theSocialist Party (PS),French Communist Party (PCF), and the GreensEurope Ecologie les Verts (EELV).^[91]

One of the great questions of current French politics is that oflibéralisme – that is,economic liberalism, individualism society and the market system, as opposed to government intervention in the economy. Broadly speaking, supporters oflibéralisme want to let the forces of thefree market operate with less regulation. For example, they want little regulation of the workforce and repeal of French laws setting a35-hour work week rather than leaving this to contract negotiations. Critics oflibéralisme argue that governmental intervention is necessary for the welfare of workers; they point out that great gains in workers' rights were historically achieved by government intervention and social mobilization, as during thePopular Front. Similarly, proponents oflibéralisme favour free markets and the free movement of goods, which critics contend benefit the wealthy class at the expense of the ordinary worker.

According to historianRené Rémond's famous classification of the right-wings in France, thislibérale tradition belongs to theOrleanist inheritance, whileGaullists inherited fromBonapartism and a tradition of state intervention issued from theNational Council of Resistance (CNR)'swelfare state program after the war. However, neo-Gaullists have since rallied economic liberalism, with the result that modern French conservatives – such as theUMP, or before that theRPR, theUDF or theIndependent Republicans – all supported economic liberalism. The so-called right-wing of theSocialist Party:François Hollande,Dominique Strauss-Kahn,Ségolène Royal have done likewise.

Some rightists, such asNicolas Sarkozy, favour radical change in the relationship between the government and the free-market. They argue that for the last 30 years, under both left-wing and right-wing governments, the French have been misled into believing that things could go on without realreforms. One may say that they favour aThatcherite approach. Others on the right (includingDominique de Villepin) as well as some on the left argue in favour of gradual reforms. In comparison, the 2005 refusal of the French electorate tovote for the proposed European Constitution was interpreted by some – in particular theFrench Communist Party and far-left parties such asLO or theLCR – as a popular refusal oflibéralisme, which the European Union is perceived to embody. Some such asLaurent Fabius have argued that the Socialist Party should thus have a more "left-wing" line.

Libertarianism as such is rare in France; it is considered a form ofultra-liberalism orneo-liberalism and upheld only by very few right-wingers, such asAlain Madelin.

Workers' unions.

• Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT): around 800,000 claimed members. It had traditional ties with theFrench Communist Party, but is currently tending more towards social-democratic views. 34.00%. General secretary :Philippe Martinez
• Confédération Française Démocratique du Travail (CFDT): about 800,000 members. Considered to be close to the more reformist factions of thePS, and the first to sign with "patronat". 21.81%. General secretary :Laurent Berger
• Force Ouvrière (FO): 500,000 members. Anarcho-syndicalism to yellow syndicalism, depend of the union, split from the CGT (1947). 15.81%. General secretary:Jean-Claude Mailly
• Confédération Française des Travailleurs Chrétiens (CFTC): 140,000 members. Christian reformist. 8.69%. President:Jacques Voisin
• Confédération Générale des Cadres (CFE-CGC): Reformist,White-collar andexecutive workers union which claims 180,000 members. 8.19%. President :Philippe Louis
• Union Nationale des Syndicats Autonomes (UNSA): 360,000 members. Reformist. 6.25%. general secretary:Alain Olive
• Solidaires Unitaires Démocratiques, (SUD): heir of the "Group of 10", a group of radical trade unions ("syndicalisme de lutte"), 110,000 members, 3.82% ;
• Confédération Nationale du Travail (CNT): Anarcho-syndicalist trade union which claims 8,000 members

• Movements of French Corporations (Mouvement des Entreprises de France (MEDEF), formerly known as CNPF), sometimes referred to aspatronat.
• General confederation of the little and middle corporations ("Confédération Générale des Petites et Moyennes Entreprises") (CGPME), aligned its position to the MEDEF.

Since the 1789French Revolution, thepolitical spectrum in France has obeyed theleft–right distinction. However, due to the historical association of the termdroite (right) withmonarchism, conservative or right-wing parties have tended to avoid officially describing themselves as representing the "right wing".

French politics was for a long time characterised by two politically opposed groupings: one left-wing, centred on theFrench Socialist Party, and the other right-wing, centred previously around theRassemblement pour la République (RPR) and its successor theUnion for a Popular Movement (UMP), today calledLes Republicains.

Liberal and centrist political party,Renaissance (RE) (formerly known asEn Marche! and laterLa République En Marche!), has been the biggest political party in France since 2017.

At the beginning of the 20th century, theFrench Left divided itself into:

• The Anarchists, who were more active in trade unions (they controlled theCGT from 1906 to 1909).
• Revolutionaries: theSFIO founded byJean Jaurès,Jules Guesde etc.
• Reformists: theRepublican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party and non-SFIO socialists.

• Unlike those in Spain, the Anarchists lost popularity and significance due to the nationalism brought about by World War I and lost theCGT majority. They joined theCGT-U and later created theCGT-SR.
• TheSFIO split in the 1920Tours Congress, where a majority of SFIO members created theFrench Section of the Communist International (the futurePCF).
• The SFIC, which quickly turned into a pro-Stalinist and isolated party (with no alliances), lost many of its original members, and changed only in 1934 (after a fascist attack to the Parliament on 6 February 1934) when it combined with thePopular Front.
• The minority of the SFIO who refused to join the Comintern retained the name and, led byLéon Blum, gradually regained ground from the Communists.
• TheRadical Party, which inherited of the tradition of the French Left and ofRadical Republicanism (sharing left-wing traits such asanti-clericalism), progressively moved more and more to the mainstream center, being one of the main governing parties between the two World Wars.

The Left was in power during:

• TheRadicals and theSFIO, who do not participate in the government), from 1924 to 1926.
• From 1932 to the6 February 1934 crisis (Radicals and independent socialists).
• Under thePopular Front (Radicals,SFIO,PCF) in 1936 to 1938 under SocialistLéon Blum and then RadicalCamille Chautemps.

• Theanarchist movements.
• ThePCF remained an important force (around 28% in elections) despite it being in perpetual opposition after May 1947. From 1956 to the end of the 1970s it was interested in the ideas of "eurocommunism".
• TheSFIO declined from 23.5% in 1946 to 15% in 1956 and increased only in 1967 (19.0%). It was in government from 1946 to 1951 and 1956–1958. It was transformed in 1971 (congrès d'Épinay) in theParti Socialiste by reunion of various socialists "clubs", the SFIO,...

After 1959, both parties were in opposition until 1981. They had formed a coalition (with theParty Radical de Gauche) called the "Union de la Gauche" between 1972 and 1978.

TheOld Left was contested on its left by theNew Left parties including the:

• Cornelius Castoriadis'sSocialisme ou Barbarie from 1948 to 1965
• Advocates ofnew social movements (includingMichel Foucault,Gilles Deleuze,Pierre Bourdieu)
• Arlette Laguiller'sWorkers' Struggle
• TheRevolutionary Communist League
• Others components of the New Left included theenvironmentalists (who would eventually foundThe Greens in 1982)

However, the emblem of the New Left was theUnified Socialist Party, or PSU.

• TheRadical Party, despite some ambiguities (support toPierre Mendès-France's center-leftRepublican Front during the1956 legislative elections), finally embracedeconomic liberalism and slid to the center-right. But in 1972, left-wing Radicals split to form theLeft Radical Party.

• In 1993,Jean-Pierre Chevènement left the PS to form theCitizen and Republican Movement (MRC), a left-wingeurosceptic party attached to the tradition of republicanism anduniversalism (secularism,equal opportunities, opposition tomulticulturalism).
• In 1994, communist and socialist dissidents created theConvention for a Progressive Alternative, a party with aneco-socialist platform, and they have 1 deputy, 8 mayors, and some councillors. They remain present in theHaute-Vienne andVal-de-Marne.
• In the 1990s and 2000s, some parties continued the inheritance of the PSU likeLes Alternatifs, or ANPAG.
• TheNew Anticapitalist Party is founded in an attempt to unify the fractured movements of the French radical Left, and attract new activists drawing on the relative combined strength of far-left parties in presidential elections in 2002, where they achieved 10.44% of the vote, and 2007 (7.07%)?

The right-wing has been divided into three broad families by historianRené Rémond.

Counter-revolutionaries who opposed all change since the French Revolution. Today, they are located on thefar-right of the French political spectrum.

These included:

• Theultra-royalists during theBourbon Restoration
• TheAction française monarchist movement
• The supporters of theVichy regime'sRévolution nationale
• The activists of theOAS during theAlgerian War (1954–1962)
• Most components ofJean-Marie Le Pen'sNational Front
• Philippe de Villiers' conservativeMovement for France

Orleanists had rallied the Republic at the end of the 19th century and advocatedeconomic liberalism (referred to in French simply aslibéralisme). Today, they are broadly classified as centre-right or centrist parties.

These included:

• The right-wing of theRadical Party
• TheDemocratic and Socialist Union of the Resistance
• The Christian-democraticPopular Republican Movement (MRP)
• Valéry Giscard d'Estaing'sIndependent Republicans
• TheUnion for a French Democracy

Large majority of the politicians ofNicolas Sarkozy's then-rulingUnion for a Popular Movement could have been classified in this family.

These included:

• Charles de Gaulle's various parties: first theRally of the French People,

then theUnion of Democrats for the Republic

• But alsoBoulangisme orPoujadisme

TheGaullist UDR was then transformed byJacques Chirac in theRally for the Republic (RPR) in 1976, a neo-Gaullist party which embraced economic liberalism.

In 2002, the Gaullist RPR and the Union for French Democracy merged into theUnion for a Popular Movement(UMP), although some elements of the old UDF remained outside the new alliance.^[92] In 2015, the party's name was changed from Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) toThe Republicans.^[93]

In 2007, a section of the remaining UDF, headed byFrançois Bayrou, refused to align themselves onNicolas Sarkozy and created theMoDem in an attempt to make space for a center-right party.

In conclusion,Jean-Marie Le Pen managed to unify most of theFrench far-right in theNational Front (FN), created in 1972 in the aftermaths of theAlgerian War, which succeeded in gaining influence starting in the 1980s. Despite Le Pen's success in the2002 presidential election, his party has been weakened byBruno Mégret's spin-out, leading to the creation of theNational Republican Movement, as well as by the concurrence ofPhilippe de Villiers'Movement for France, and also by the internal struggles concerning Le Pen's forthcoming succession.^[94] In 2018, far-right National Front party (FN), led byMarine Le Pen, changed its name to theNational Rally (Rassemblement National, RN).^[95] Since then, the party has seen several electoral successes, including in the2022 presidential election and the first round of the2024 legislative snap elections.

Residual monarchists movements, inheritors ofCharles Maurras'Action française, also managed to survive, although many of them joined Le Pen's FN in the 1980s. Someneo-fascists who considered Le Pen to be too moderate broke away in 1974 to form theParti des forces nouvelles, which maintained close links to the far-right students' unionGroupe Union Défense.

Another important theoretical influence in the far-right appeared in the 1980s withAlain de Benoist'sNouvelle Droite movement, organized into theGRECE.

• Anti-nuclear movement in France
• Balladur jurisprudence
• History of the French far right
• History of the Left in France
• History of anarchism in France
• Liberalism and Radicalism in France
• Political party strength in France
• Sinistrisme

• McClelland, J. S., ed.The French Right, from de Maistre to Maurras, in series,Roots of the Right and alsoHarper Torchbooks. New York: Harper & Row, 1971, cop. 1970. 320 p.ISBN 0-06-131628-8 pbk

• France’s Lost and Found Ideals by Patrice de Beer
• Vive la Revolution? by Marc Perelman,The Nation, 29 April 2009
• Will 2010 regional elections lead to political shake-up? Radio France Internationale in English
• www.frenchpolitics.fr Follow French politics in the run up to the 2012 Presidential election.

• Political history of France
• Politics of France

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