This article is about Poles as an ethnic group. For Polish nationality law or citizenship, seePolish nationality law. For Poles living outside Poland, seePolish diaspora.
The population of self-declared Poles in Poland is estimated at 37,394,000 out of an overall population of 38,512,000 (based on the 2011 census),[44] of whom 36,522,000 declared Polish alone.[45][46][4] A wide-ranging Polish diaspora (thePolonia) exists throughoutEurasia, theAmericas, andAustralasia. Today, the largest urban concentrations of Poles are within theWarsaw metropolitan area and theKatowice urban area.
Ethnic Poles are considered to be the descendants of the ancient West SlavicLechites and other tribes that inhabited the Polish territories during thelate antiquity period. Poland'srecorded history dates back over a thousand years toc. 930–960 AD, when theWestern Polans – an influential tribe in theGreater Poland region – united various Lechitic clans under what became thePiast dynasty,[47] thus creating the first Polish state. The subsequentChristianization of Poland by theCatholic Church, in 966 CE, marked Poland's advent to the community ofWestern Christendom. However, throughout its existence, the Polish state followed a tolerant policy towards minorities resulting in numerous ethnic and religious identities of the Poles, such asPolish Jews.
The PolishendonymPolacy is derived from theWestern Polans, aLechitic tribe which inhabited lands around theRiver Warta inGreater Poland region from the mid-6th century onward.[48] The tribe's name stems from theProto-Indo European*pleh₂-, which means flat or flatland and corresponds to thetopography of a region that the Western Polans initially settled.[49][50] The prefixpol- is used in most world languages when referring toPoles (Spanishpolaco, Italianpolacche, Frenchpolonais, GermanPole).
Among other foreignexonyms for the Polish people areLithuanianLenkai;HungarianLengyelek;TurkishLeh;Armenian:ԼեհաստանLehastan; andPersian:لهستان (Lahestān). These stem fromLechia, the ancient name for Poland, or from the tribalLendians. Their names are equally derived from theOld Polish termlęda, meaning plain or field.[51]
Polish is the native language of most Poles. It is aWest Slavic language of theLechitic group and the sole official language in the Republic of Poland. Its written form uses thePolish alphabet, which is the basicLatin alphabet with the addition of sixdiacritic marks, totalling 32 letters. Bearing relation toCzech andSlovak, it has been profoundly influenced byLatin,German and other languages over the course of history.[61][62] Poland is linguistically homogeneous – nearly 97% of Poland's citizens declare Polish as their mother tongue.[63]
Polish-speakers use the language in a uniform manner throughout most of Poland, though numerousdialects and avernacular language in certain regions coexist alongsidestandard Polish. The most commonlects in Poland areSilesian, spoken inUpper Silesia, andKashubian, widely spoken in historic EasternPomerania (Pomerelia), today in the northwestern part of Poland.[64] Kashubian possesses its own status as a separate language.[65][66] TheGoral people in the mountainous south use their own nonstandard dialect, accenting and differentintonation.
The geographical distribution of thePolish language was greatly affected by the border changes and population transfers that followed theSecond World War – forcedexpulsions and resettlement during that period contributed to the country's current linguistic homogeneity.[67]
Poland's history duringclassical antiquity is primarily reconstructed througharchaeological evidence, as the region lay outside theRoman Empire and produced few written records.[74] In the 1st century BCE, the area was inhabited by Celtic tribes, notably theBoii, who established settlements inLower Silesia.[74] These groups were part of theLa Tène culture, recognised for advanced metallurgy, intricate ornamentation, and distinctive burial customs.[74] Evidence from sites along theAmber Road, a major trade route linking theBaltic Sea to theMediterranean, indicates Poland's role as a corridor for goods likeamber andceramics during this period.[74]
In the early centuries CE, thePrzeworsk culture flourished in central and southern Poland, succeeding Celtic presence.[75] The Przeworsk culture is notable for itscremation burials, iron weaponry, and Roman imports.[75]Roman coins and military artifacts discovered in theKuyavia region suggest contact between local populations and the Roman Empire, possibly through trade or mercenary service.[75] By the 2nd century CE, theWielbark culture, linked to Germanic peoples, began to dominate northern and central Poland and gradually replaced the earlierOksywie culture.[76] The Wielbark people did not bury weapons in graves, a practice distinct from their Przeworsk neighbours, but their cemeteries reveal long-distance contacts through Roman goods, includingRoman glassware.[77] The eventual decline of the Roman Empire in the 4th and 5th centuries coincided with the southward relocation of the Goths, leaving behind a cultural vacuum that was gradually filled bySlavic migration.[78] The incoming tribes built defensive settlements calledgords across much of Poland.[79]
In 1079,Bolesław II the Bold entered a conflict with the Catholic Church, culminating in the execution ofBishop Stanislaus, which led to his downfall and exile.[84] After the death ofBolesław III Wrymouth in 1138, Poland entered a period offragmentation, as the kingdom was divided among his sons into regional duchies.[85] This weakened central authority and made the country vulnerable to external threats, including devastatingMongol invasions in the 13th century.[86][87] However, the era also saw the growth of towns underMagdeburg Law, the settlement of foreign populations, and the founding of many institutions.[88][89] TheTeutonic Order, invited to confront paganOld Prussians byKonrad I of Masovia, established its own state in the northeastern Baltic region, eventually becoming a hostile neighbour.[90]
Between 1500 and the early 17th century, thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth emerged as one of the most powerful and expansive states in Europe.[94] Established through theUnion of Lublin in 1569, it united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under a single electedmonarch and a shared parliament (Sejm).[94] Governed by a unique system of noble democracy (Golden Liberty), the Commonwealth was characterised by a politically active nobility (szlachta) who wielded considerable political influence.[94] This period is often regarded as Poland’sGolden Age, marked by territorial expansion andPolonisation, but also by religious tolerance enshrined in theWarsaw Confederation of 1573, and a flourishing of intellectual and cultural life.[95][96] However, the death ofSigismund II Augustus in 1572 ushered in an era of instability driven by the weaknesses of anelective monarchy.[97] TheVasa dynasty ruled from 1587 to 1668, beginning withSigismund III, who also claimed theSwedish throne and moved Poland's capital fromKraków toWarsaw in 1596.[98]
The mid-17th century marked the beginning of a prolonged period of decline for the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[99] A series of destructive conflicts severely weakened the state and destabilised its frontiers, notablyUkraine's struggle for independence from Poland during theKhmelnytsky Uprising (1648) and theSwedish Deluge (1655–1660).[99] Simultaneous wars with theOttoman Empire andRussia further strained the Commonwealth’s resources and exposed its military and administrative vulnerabilities.[99] Internally, governance was crippled by theliberum veto, a parliamentary mechanism that allowed any deputy to block legislation and dissolve the Sejm, rendering meaningful reform nearly impossible.[100] Although symbolic military successes occurred, most notablyJohn III Sobieski’s decisive role in theBattle of Vienna (1683), the victories could not compensate for the growing structural dysfunction.[101]
In the 18th century, the situation deteriorated further.[102] TheSaxon kings from theHouse of Wettin, who ruled Poland inpersonal union, presided over a period of deepening political stagnation and increasing foreign interference.[102] Despite reformist efforts byStanislaus II Augustus, culminating in the progressiveConstitution of May 3, 1791 aimed to strengthen central authority and modernise the state, these initiatives were met with hostility from neighbouring powers.[103] In response,Russia,Prussia, andAustria orchestrated a series ofterritorial partitions in 1772, 1793, and 1795, thus erasing the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from the map.[104] By the close of the 18th century, Poland had ceased to exist as a sovereign state, initiating a long period of interchanging foreign rule that would last until the early 20th century.
After 123 years of partition, Poland regained independence in 1918 at the end ofWorld War I, forming theSecond Polish Republic under the leadership ofJózef Piłsudski.[105] The interwar period (1918–1939) was marked by efforts to consolidate borders, build a modern state, and manage deep political divisions.[106][107] In 1939, Poland wasinvaded byNazi Germany from the west and theSoviet Union from the east, triggeringWorld War II.[108] The country was occupied, but maintained its sovereignty through the establishment of thePolish Government-in-Exile, initially based inFrance and later inLondon.[109] This government coordinated resistance efforts at home through theHome Army (Armia Krajowa), one of the largest underground movements in German-occupied Europe.[109] Despite this, Poland suffered immense human and material losses, including the deaths of around six million Polish citizens, half of themPolish Jews who perished in variousNazi concentration and extermination camps during theHolocaust.[109]
After the war, Poland fell within theSoviet sphere of political influence and became acommunist country, thePolish People's Republic, under a one-party regime headed by thePolish United Workers' Party.[110] The postwar period was marked by centralised planning,nationalisation of industry, and political repression, includingcensorship and the suppression of dissents.[111] Despite periods of relative stability, widespread dissatisfaction with economic hardship and lack of political freedom persisted.[111] This discontent culminated in the emergence of theSolidarity (Solidarność) movement in the early 1980s, led byLech Wałęsa, which began as an independent trade union and evolved into a broader social and political force.[111] Following the end ofmartial law (1981–1983), facing economic crisis and mounting internal pressure, the communist government entered negotiations with opposition leaders, leading to theRound Table Talks and the1989 Polish parliamentary election.[111][112] These events marked the beginning of a peaceful transition todemocracy and to the establishment of the contemporary Third Polish Republic.[112]
Since 1989, Poland has undergone significant political, economic, and social transformation. The country transitioned from a centrallyplanned economy to amarket-based system and joinedNATO in 1999 and theEuropean Union in 2004.[113] Poland remains a key player in Central Europe, with a growing economy, strong civil society, and a significant role in supporting regional security.
The culture of Poland is closely connected with its intricate 1,000-yearhistory, and forms an important constituent in theWestern civilisation.[114] Strong ties with the Latinate world and theRoman Catholic faith also shaped Poland's cultural identity.[115][116] Various regions in Poland such asGreater Poland,Lesser Poland,Kuyavia,Masovia,Silesia, andPomerania developed their own distinct cultures, cuisines,folklore and dialects. Also, Poland for centuries was a refuge to countless ethnic and religious minorities, who became an important part of Polish society and similarly developed their own unique customs.[117]
In Poland, naming conventions are governed by well-defined linguistic and cultural norms.[121] Polish naming laws set by thePolish Language Council strictly ensure consistency with linguistic rules.[121] A full name typically comprises one or two given names followed by a surname. Given names, of various linguistic origins, are often associated withname days (imieniny) that were once widely celebrated.[122]Surnames are generally inherited and reflect grammatical gender; for instance, the masculine formKowalski corresponds to the feminineKowalska.[123] Some surnames, such asNowak, remain unchanged regardless of gender.Plural forms are also used when referring to families, such asKowalscy.[123]
Many surnames derive from occupational titles, geographic locations, or descriptive traits.[123] Since theHigh Middle Ages, Polish-sounding surnames ending with the masculine-skisuffix and the corresponding feminine suffix-ska were associated with thenobility.[124] Nobles also utilisedRomannaming conventions, includingagnomens. In speech etiquette, thePolish language maintains strictT–V distinction pronouns, honorifics and formalities when addressing individuals invocative case (Pan for an adult man,Pani for an adult woman,Panna for a young unmarried woman); the extent to which affectionate forms or namediminutives are used can vary.[125]
Personal achievement and education plays an important role in Polish society today. In 2018, theProgramme for International Student Assessment ranked Poland 11th in the world for mathematics, science and reading.[130] Education has been of prime interest to Poland since the early 12th century, particularly for itsnoble classes. In 1364, KingCasimir the Great founded theKraków Academy, which would becomeJagiellonian University, the second-oldest institution of higher learning in Central Europe.[131]
TraditionalPolish music is characterised by distinctive regional styles and features folk instruments such as thefiddle,accordion, andclarinet.[134] Particularly notable is the highlandbagpipe and fiddle music from theTatra Mountains, recognised for its dynamic rhythms and expressive melodies. Poland has also made significant contributions to theclassical music canon, most prominently through the works of Polish pianist and composerFrédéric Chopin, whose compositions remain central to theRomantic repertoire.
Latin songs and religious hymns such asGaude Mater Polonia andBogurodzica were once chanted in places of worship and during festivities, but the tradition has faded.[137]Sung poetry,disco polo andjazz remain important in Poland’s musical identity, the latter supported by a strong tradition dating back to the mid-20th century.[138] In modern times,hip-hop has emerged as one of the most influential genres among younger audiences, often characterised by its strong connection to urban culture.[138]
The use of colourful flower motifs,woodworking,papercutting, andneedlework are important parts of Polish folk art.[142] TraditionalPolish folk costumes (stroje ludowe) often feature rich embroidery, vivid colours, and decorative elements such as beads, ribbons, andlace.[143] Women’s attire typically includes long skirts,aprons, embroidered blouses,corsets or vests, and headscarves orwreaths,[143] while men’s outfits often feature embroidered shirts, sashes, hats, andhigh boots.[144] Some of the most well-known regional costumes include theŁowicz garb, theGoral (Highlander) clothing from theTatra Mountains, and the Kraków costume, often considered Poland's national dress.[144]Rogatywka, also known as a "konfederatka", is a type of hat which originated in Poland and is worn by themilitary.
Traditional Polish cuisine is hearty and Poles are one of the more obese nations in Europe – approximately 58% of the adult population was overweight in 2019, above the EU average.[147] According to data from 2017,meat consumption per capita in Poland was one of the highest in the world, withpork being the most in demand.[148]Vegetarianism is on the rise, though this is not measured by theStatistical Office.Alcohol consumption is relatively moderate compared to other European states;[149] popular alcoholic beverages include Polish-producedbeer,vodka andciders.
Poles have traditionally adhered to the Christian faith; an overwhelming majority belongs to theRoman Catholic Church,[150] with 87.5% of Poles in 2011 identifying asRoman Catholic.[151] According toPoland's Constitution, freedom of religion is ensured to everyone. It also allows for national and ethnic minorities to have the right to establish educational and cultural institutions, institutions designed to protect religious identity, as well as to participate in the resolution of matters connected with their cultural identity.
Religious organisations in the Republic of Poland can register their institution with theMinistry of Interior and Administration creating a record of churches and other religious organisations who operate under separate Polish laws. This registration is not necessary; however, it is beneficial when it comes to serving the freedom of religious practice laws.[citation needed]
Slavic Native Faith (Rodzimowiercy) groups, registered with the Polish authorities in 1995, are theNative Polish Church (Rodzimy Kościół Polski), which represents a pagan tradition going back toWładysław Kołodziej's 1921 Holy Circle of Worshippers ofŚwiatowid (Święte Koło Czcicieli Światowida), and the Polish Slavic Church (Polski Kościół Słowiański). There is also theNative Faith Association (Zrzeszenie Rodzimej Wiary,ZRW), founded in 1996.[153]
The map depicts countries by number of citizens who reported Polish ancestry or citizenship (based on sources in this article)
Poland
+ 10,000,000
+ 1,000,000
+ 100,000
+ 10,000
Distribution of Poles in the 19th century
over 50% Polish
30% – 50% Polish
20% – 30% Polish
10% – 20% Polish
5% – 10% Polish
3% – 5% Polish
1% – 3% Polish
Polish people are the fifth-largest national group in theEuropean Union (EU) after Germans, French, Italians and Spaniards.[154] Estimates vary depending on source, though available data suggest a total number of up to 60 million people worldwide (with up to 22 million living outside of Poland).[1] There are almost 38 million Poles in Poland alone.[155] There are also strong Polish communities in neighbouring countries, whose territories were once occupied or part of Poland – westernBelarus, westernUkraine,Lithuania,Latvia and in theCieszyn Silesia region of theCzech Republic.[1]
The term "Polonia" is usually used in Poland to refer to people of Polish origin who live outside Polish borders. There is a notable Polishdiaspora in theUnited States,Brazil, andCanada. France has a historic relationship with Poland and has a relatively large Polish-descendant population. Poles have lived in France since the 18th century. In the early 20th century, over a million Polish people settled inFrance, mostly during world wars, among them Polish émigrés fleeing eitherNazi occupation (1939–1945) orCommunism (1945/1947–1989). There is also a notable Polish diaspora in the United Kingdom and in Germany.[1]
In the United States, a significant number of Polish immigrants settled inChicago (billed as the world's most Polish city outside of Poland), Milwaukee, Ohio, Detroit,New Jersey, New York City,Orlando,Pittsburgh,Buffalo, andNew England. The highest concentration ofPolish Americans in a single New England municipality is inNew Britain, Connecticut. In year 1900 the largest Catholic Polish communities in the United States were in Pennsylvania, New York State, Illinois, Wisconsin and Michigan.[156] The majority of Polish Canadians have arrived in Canada since World War II. The number of Polish immigrants increased between 1945 and 1970, and again after theend of Communism in Poland in 1989. In Brazil, the majority of Polish immigrants settled inParaná State. Smaller, but significant numbers settled in the states ofRio Grande do Sul, Espírito Santo andSão Paulo (state). The city ofCuritiba has the second largest Polish diaspora in the world (after Chicago) andPolish music,dishes andculture are quite common in the region.
A recent large migration of Poles took place following Poland's accession to theEuropean Union in 2004 and with the opening of the EU's labor market; an approximate number of 2 million, primarily young, Poles taking up jobs abroad.[157] It is estimated that over half a million Polish people went to work in the United Kingdom from Poland. Since 2011, Poles have been able towork freely throughout the EU where they have had full working rights since Poland'sEU accession in 2004. The Polish community inNorway has increased substantially and has grown to a total number of 120,000, making Poles the largest immigrant group in Norway. Only in recent years has the population abroad decreased, specifically in the UK with 116.000 leaving the UK in 2018 alone. There is a large minority ofPolish people in Ireland that makes up approximately 2.57% of the population.[158]
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^Cieśliński, Adam (2016)."The society of Wielbark culture, AD 1‒300".The Past Societies. Polish Lands from the First Evidence of Human Presence to the Early Middle Ages.4. Warszawa (Warsaw):217–255. Retrieved13 May 2025.
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^Robert Machray (November 1930). "Pilsudski, the Strong Man of Poland".Current History.33 (2). University of California Press:195–199.doi:10.1525/curh.1930.33.2.195.JSTOR45333442.
^Brian Porter-Szücs (6 January 2014).Poland in the Modern World: Beyond Martyrdom. John Wiley & Sons.ISBN978-1-118-59808-5.
^Knoll, Paul W.; Schaer, Frank, eds. (2003),Gesta Principum Polonorum / The Deeds of the Princes of the Poles, Central European Medieval Texts, General Editors János M. Bak, Urszula Borkowska, Giles Constable & Gábor Klaniczay, vol. 3, Budapest/ New York: Central European University Press, pp. 87–211,ISBN978-963-9241-40-4
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