Polabian Slavs, also known asElbe Slavs[a]and more broadly asWends, is a collective term applied to a number ofLechitic (West Slavic) tribes who lived scattered along theElbe river in what is todayeastern Germany. The approximate territory stretched from theBaltic Sea in the north, theSaale[1] and theLimes Saxoniae[2] in the west, theOre Mountains and theWestern Sudetes in the south, and medievalPoland in the east.
The Polabian Slavs, largely conquered bySaxons andDanes from the 9th century onwards, were included and graduallyassimilated within theHoly Roman Empire. The tribes became graduallyGermanized and assimilated in the following centuries; theSorbs are the only descendants of the Polabian Slavs to have retained their identity and culture.
ThePolabian language is now extinct. However, the twoSorbian languages are spoken by approximately 22,000–30,000 inhabitants[3] of the region. The government of Germany regards Upper and Lower Sorbian as official regional languages.
TheBavarian Geographer, an anonymous medieval document compiled inRegensburg in 830, contains a list of the tribes inCentral Europe to the east of the Elbe. Among other tribes it lists the Uuilci (Veleti) with 95civitates, the Nortabtrezi (Obotrites) with 53 civitates, the Surbi (Sorbs) with 50 civitates, the Milzane (Milceni) with 30 civitates, the Hehfeldi (Hevelli) with 14 civitates and so on. TheGreat Soviet Encyclopedia classifies the Polabian Slavs in three main tribes, theObotrites, theVeleti, and theLusatian Sorbs.
The main tribes[4] of the Obotritic confederation were theObotrites proper (Wismar Bay to theSchweriner See); theWagrians (easternHolstein); theWarnabi (Warnower) (the upperWarnow andMildenitz); and thePolabians proper (between theTrave and theElbe). Other tribes associated with the confederation include the Linones (Linonen) nearLenzen, the Travnjane near theTrave, and theDrevani in theHanoverian Wendland and the northernAltmark.[5]
TheVeleti, also known as the Liutizians or Wilzians, included theKessinians (Kessiner,Chyzzini) along the lower Warnow andRostock; theCircipani (Zirzipanen) between theRecknitz,Trebel, andPeene Rivers; the Tollenser east and south of the Peene along theTollense River; and the Redarier south and east of theTollensesee on the upperHavel. The Redarier were the most important of the Veleti tribes.[5] TheRani ofRügen, not to be confused with the older GermanicRugians, are sometimes considered to be part of the Veleti.[6] South of the Rani were theUcri (Ukranen) along theUcker and the Morici (Morizani,Müritzer) along theMüritz;[5] the former gave their name to theUckermark. Smaller tribes included the Došane along theDosse, the Zamzizi in theRuppin Land, and the Rěčanen on the upperHavel. Along the lower Havel and near the confluence of the Elbe and the Havel lived the Nelětici, the Liezizi, the Zemzizi, the Smeldingi (Smeldinger), and the Bethenici.[5] The middleHavel region and theHavelland were settled by theHevelli, a tribe loosely connected to the Veleti. East of the Hevelli lived theSprevane of the lowerDahme andSpree rivers.[5] Small tribes on the middle Elbe included the Morizani and the Zerwisti.
TheSorbs confederation in the Elbe-Saale region included Citici, Serimunt, Colodici, Siusler, Nizici, Glomaci (Daleminzier) and Nisanen who lived along the upper Elbe, while the Chutici, Plisni, Gera, Puonzowa, Tucharin, Weta, and groups of Nelětici lived near the Saale.[7]Joachim Herrmann considered that the core Sorbian tribes surely were Colodici, Siusler and Glomaci, and that they also settled and influenced aroundMagdeburg, Havelland, Thuringia and northeast Bavaria.[8] To the East possibly later included theLusici ofLower Lusatia and theMilceni ofUpper Lusatia,[5] while to the East of them were the Selpoli and the Besunzanen, and on the middleOder the Leubuzzi who were associated with medieval Poland.[7]
Small groups of West Slavs lived on theMain and theRegnitz nearBamberg, in northeasternBavaria.[7]
The Polabian Slavs partly replaced theGermanic tribes who had emigrated by the 6th century during themigration period.[9][10] According toradiocarbon dating, the first Slavs reached Southwestern Hungary,Suchohrad in Western Slovakia andPrague in Czechia in the first-third of the 6th century, andRegensburg of Northeast Bavaria in 568.[10] The earliest dating ofPrague-type pottery and sites between Elbe and Saale andSukow-type in Northeastern Germany was found to be from 590s.[10] However,palynology and other evidence show that the land in Germany became forested and not well resettled by the Slavs, with most material and sites dating since the 8th century.[9][10]
Slavic settlement area was largely stable by the 8th century.Charlemagne enlisted theObotrites as allies in his campaign against the rebelliousSaxons ofHolstein. Many of the Slavic tribes became dependencies of theCarolingian Empire and theFranks created theSorbian March to defend against theSorbs.Einhard inVita Karoli Magni describes an expedition into Slavic territory led byCharlemagne himself, in 798. The Veleti noted as Wilzi (referred to themselves asWelatabians)[11] were invaded by theFranks because of their continuous expeditions intoObodrite lands, with the Obodrites being allies of the Franks against theSaxons.[11][12]
German campaigns against the Slavs began in earnest during theOttonian dynasty.Henry the Fowler attacked the Slavs in several campaigns with his cavalry. During the reigns of Henry and his sonOtto I, several marches were established to guard the eastern acquisitions, such as theBillung March to the north and theMarca Geronis to the south. AfterGero's death in 965, the Marca Geronis was divided into theNorthern March, theMarch of Lusatia, and theThuringian March, the latter being divided into the marches ofZeitz,Merseburg, andMeissen. Bishoprics such asMagdeburg,Brandenburg, andHavelberg were founded to support the conversion of the Slavs toChristianity.
After the defeat ofOtto II at theBattle of Stilo in 982, the pagan Slavs rebelled against theGermans the following year; theHevelli andLiutizi destroyed the Bishoprics of Havelberg and Brandenburg, andObotrites (Mstivoj) destroyed Hamburg.[13] Some Slavs advanced across the Elbe into Saxon territory, but retreated when the Christian Duke of Poland,Mieszko I, attacked them from the east. TheHoly Roman Empire retained only nominal control over the Slavic territories between the Elbe and the Oder. Despite the efforts of Christian missionaries, most Polabian Slavs sawJesus as a "German god" and remainedpagan.
The Obotrite princeUdo and his sonGottschalk expanded their realm by unifying the Obotrite tribes and conquering some Liutizi tribes in the 11th century. They encouraged the establishments of bishoprics to support Christian missionary activity. However,a revolt in 1066 led to the murder of Gottschalk and his replacement by the paganKruto of Wagria. Gottschalk's sonHenry eventually killed Kruto in 1093.
From 1140 to 1143Holsatian nobles advanced intoWagria to permanently settle in the lands of the pagan Wagri. CountAdolf II of Holstein andHenry of Badewide took control ofPolabian settlements atLiubice andRacisburg. Impressed with the success of theFirst Crusade, Saxons began calling for a crusade against their Slav neighbors. TheWendish Crusade of 1147, concurrent to theSecond Crusade, was largely unsuccessful, resulting in devastation to the Liutizi lands and forcedbaptisms. The campaign did secure Saxon control ofWagria andPolabia, however. The Obotrites were largely at peace with the Saxons during the following decade, although Slavic pirates raided Denmark.
Beginning in the late 1150s, KingValdemar the Great of Denmark enlisted the aid of DukeHenry the Lion ofSaxony against the Slavs; their cooperation led to the death of the Obotrite prince,Niklot, in 1160. The two Christian lords distributed much of the conquered territory among their vassals. When Niklot's exiled son,Pribislav, engineered an Obotrite rebellion, the pair retaliated by occupyingDemmin and warding off Pribislav's Liutizian allies.
After conquering Wagria and Polabia during the 1140s, Saxon nobles attempted to expel the "native" Slavs and replace them with Saxon andFlemish settlers. The 1164 Obotrite revolt led by Niklot's son Pribislav convinced Henry the Lion that keeping the Slavs as allies would be less troublesome. The duke returned the Christian Pribislav to power as Prince ofMecklenburg,Kessin, andRostock, and a vassal of the Saxons.
Tactics and weaponry were decisive in Denmark's campaigns against the eastern Polabian Slavs. The Danes utilized quick coastal and river raids, tactics similar to those of theVikings. Although they lacked siege experience, the Danes were able to cripple Slavic regions by burning crops and unwalled suburbs. Slav counterattacks were repulsed bycrossbows and Norwegianlongbows. The Danesoccupied Rugia in 1168, conquering theRani stronghold ofArkona. Similar to Henry's reinstatement of Pribislav as a Saxon vassal, Valdemar allowed the Rani princeJaromar to rule as a Christian Danish vassal. After Valdemar refused to share Rugia with Henry, the Saxon duke enlisted the aid of the Obotrite confederacy and the Liutizi against the Danes; Valdemar ended the conflict by paying Henry in 1171.
Alarmed at the expansion of Henry the Lion's power, EmperorFrederick Barbarossa deposed the Saxon duke and redistributed his lands in 1180/81. The withdrawal of Saxon support left the Liutizi and theirPomeranian supporters vulnerable to the Danish fleet. A Slavic fleet attempting to reclaim Rugia was crushed at theBay of Greifswald on 19 May 1184. Danish monks engaged in missionary activity in Pomeranian abbeys, and PrinceBogislaw I surrendered to KingCanute VI in 1185 to become the Danish king's vassal.
Pribislav, a Christian prince of theHevelli, bequeathed his lands to the SaxonAlbert the Bear upon his death, thereby leading to the establishment of theMargraviate of Brandenburg.
TheLusatian Sorbs remained independent to a large extent. They were temporarily subdued byCharlemagne, but upon his death the links with the Franks were broken. In a series of bloody wars between 929 and 963 their lands were conquered by KingHenry the Fowler and his sonOtto the Great and were incorporated into theKingdom of Germany. By the 14th century, the majority of Slavs living there had beenGermanized and assimilated. However, theSorbs, the descendants of theMilceni and the Lusici, have retained their identity withinLusatia, a region divided between the German states ofBrandenburg andSaxony.
The Slavic language was spoken by the descendants of the Drevani in the area of the lower Elbe until the early 18th century.
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A Polabian prince was known as aknez. His power was relatively greater in Slavic society than those of Danish or Swedish kings in their kingdoms,[citation needed] although it was not absolute. He was the general leader of his tribe and was foremost among its nobles, holding much of the forestedhinterland and expecting reverence from his warriors.[14] However, his authority largely extended only to the territory controlled by his governor, orvoivod. Eachvoivod governed small territories based around fortifications.
Princely power often differed between tribes. The Obodrite princeHenryk was able to maintain a sizable army ca. 1100 at the expense of the towns, and the importance ofknez within the Obodrites only increased after his death.[15] The prince of theRani, on the other hand, was limited by the localsenate, which was led by thehigh priest atCape Arkona; the Raniknez was essentially first among the tribe's landowners.[16]
The power of the prince and his governors was often restricted by the river towns, known tochroniclers ascivitates, especially within the territory of the Veleti. Polabian towns were centered on smallearthworks arranged in circles or ovals.[14] Thegord was situated at the highest altitude of the town and held a barracks, citadel, and princely residence. It was often protected by a moat, walls, and wooden towers. Below thegord, but still within the town walls, was theurbs orsuburbium, which held the residences for the nobility and merchants. The towns often held wooden temples forSlavic gods within theurbs. Outside of the walls were homes for the peasantry.[17] With the exception ofArkona onRügen, few Polabian towns on theBaltic coast were built near the shore, out of concern for pirates and raiders. While not highly populated compared toFlanders orItaly, the Polabian towns were relatively large for the Baltic region, such as in comparison to those of Scandinavia.[15]
The majority of Polabian Slavs werepeasants in small villages who engaged in agriculture[18] (rich in grains, flax) andanimal husbandry (poultry, cattle).[6] Some villagers were fishermen, beekeepers, or trappers. Farmland was divided into a unit called akuritz (Latin:uncus), for which peasants paid grain taxes to thevoivot.[14]
Polabian society developed during the 9th and 10th centuries under pressure from theHoly Roman Empire and theVikings ofScandinavia. They were often forced to paytribute to the kings ofDenmark,Catholic bishops, and imperialmargraves. Polabian society became militarized and its leaders began organizing armed forces and defenses. Many Polabianmagnates lived in forest fortresses, while towns were inhabited by warriors andburghers.[14]
The magnates often raided Germanic territories or engaged in piracy. In times of large-scale war, theknes took overall command. The prince'svoivot ensured military service from the warriors and taxes from the peasantry. While the countryside provided land forces, the towns were known for theirlongships, which were lighter and lower than those used by theDanes andSwedes.[19]
From a distance, Polabian fleets resembled those of the Scandinavians, although targets would recognize the Slavs' closely cropped hair and shriekingbattle cries when they grew close.[20] Polabian cavalry usedsmall horses which were effective in quick raiding campaigns, but less effective against theSaxon and Danishheavy cavalry.[21]
Religion was an important aspect of Polabian society. Much of their territory was dotted with holy places in nature to which the Slavs could pray and make offerings to Slavicgods. The priesthood was an important class which developed images and objects of worship. Polabian towns often included elaborate temples often visited for offerings and pilgrimages. In contrast, priests in the countryside often lived meagerly.[16]
