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Aplug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) or simplyplug-in hybrid is a type ofhybrid electric vehicle equipped with a rechargeablebattery pack that can be directly replenished via acharging cable plugged into an externalelectric power source, in addition to charging internally by its on-boardinternal combustion engine–poweredgenerator. While PHEVs are predominantlypassenger cars, there are also plug-in hybrid variants ofsports cars,commercial vehicles,vans,utility trucks,buses,trains,motorcycles,mopeds,military vehicles and boats.[7]
Similar tobattery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrids can use centralized generators ofrenewable energy (e.g.solar,wind orhydroelectric) to be largely emission-free, or a fossil plant in which case they displacegreenhouse gas emissions from the cartailpipeexhaust to thepower station. As opposed to conventional hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), PHEVs generally have a larger battery pack that can be recharged (theoretically) from anywhere with access to theelectrical grid, offering enhancedenergy efficiency and cost-effectiveness when compared to relying solely on the on-board generator. Additionally, PHEVs can support longer and more frequentall-electric range driving, and theirelectric motors often have higher power output andtorque, are more responsive in acceleration, and overall have loweroperating costs. Although a PHEV's battery pack is smaller than that of all-electric vehicles of the same weight, as it must accommodate its combustion engine andhybrid drivetrain, it provides the added flexibility of reverting to the use of itsgasoline/diesel engine, akin to a conventional HEV if the battery charge is depleted. This feature helps alleviaterange anxiety, particularly in areas lacking sufficientcharging infrastructure.
Mass-produced PHEVs have been available to the public inChina and theUnited States since 2010,[8][9][10] with the introduction of theChevrolet Volt, which was the best selling PHEV until it was surpassed by theMitsubishi Outlander PHEV at the Volt's end of production in 2019.[11] By 2021,BYD Auto emerged as the largest plug-in hybrid vehicle manufacturer in the world. As of May 2024[update], BYD plug-in hybrid cumulative sales surpassed 3.6 million units.[12] TheBYD Song DM line of SUVs contributed over 1.05 million units.[13][14][2][15]
China currently has thelargest stock of PHEVs in the world, with cumulative sales of 9.31 million units (includingEREV) through December 2024.[16][17] In 2024, over 76% of global PHEV sales was contributed by the Chinese market. In addition, the five largest producers of PHEVs globally are Chinese manufacturers, which are BYD,Geely,Chery,Li Auto andChangan.[18]
TheLohner–Porsche Mixte Hybrid, produced as early as 1899, was the first hybrid electric car.[19][20] Early hybrids could be charged from an external source before operation. The term "plug-in hybrid" has come to mean a hybrid vehicle that can be charged from a standard electrical wall socket. The term "plug-in hybrid electric vehicle" was coined byUC DavisProfessor Andrew Frank,[21] who has been called the "father of the modern plug-in hybrid".[22][23][24]
The July 1969 issue ofPopular Science featured an article on theGeneral Motors XP-883 plug-in hybrid. The concept commuter vehicle housed six12-volt lead–acid batteries in the trunk area and a transverse-mounted DC electric motor turning a front-wheel drive. The car could be plugged into a standard North American 120 volt AC outlet for recharging.[25]
In 2003,Renault began selling theElect'road, a plug-in series hybrid version of their popularKangoo, in Europe. In addition to its engine, it could be plugged into a standard outlet and recharged to 95% range in about 4 hours.[26] After selling about 500 vehicles, primarily in France, Norway and the UK, the Elect'road was redesigned in 2007.[27]
With the availability of hybrid vehicles and the rising gas prices in the United States starting around 2002, interest in plug-in hybrids increased.[28] Some plug-in hybrids were conversions of existing hybrids; for example, the 2004CalCars conversion of a Prius to add lead acid batteries and a range of up to 15 km (9 mi) using only electric power.[29]
In 2006, bothToyota andGeneral Motors announced plans for plug-in hybrids.[30][31] GM's Saturn Vue project was cancelled, but the Toyota plug-in was certified for road use in Japan in 2007.[32]
In 2007, Quantum Technologies andFisker Coachbuild, LLC announced the launch of a joint venture inFisker Automotive.[33] Fisker intended to build a US$80,000 luxury PHEV with 60 km (37 mi) of electric range, theFisker Karma, initially scheduled for late 2009.[34]
In 2007,Aptera Motors announced theirTyp-1 two seater. That company folded in December 2011.[35]
In 2007, Chinese car manufacturer BYD Auto, owned by China's largest mobile phone battery maker, announced it would be introducing a production PHEV with 60 km (37 mi) of electric range in a form of a sedan in China in the second half of 2008. BYD exhibited it in January 2008 at theNorth American International Auto Show in Detroit. Based on BYD's midsize F6 sedan, it useslithium iron phosphate (LFP)-based batteries instead of lithium-ion, and can be recharged to 70% of capacity in 10 minutes.[36]
In 2007, Ford delivered the firstFord Escape Plug-in Hybrid of a fleet of 20 demonstration PHEVs toSouthern California Edison.[37] As part of this demonstration program Ford also developed the firstflexible-fuel plug-in hybridSUV, which was delivered in June 2008.[38] This demonstration fleet of plug-ins has been in field testing with utility company fleets in the U.S. and Canada,[39] and during the first two years since the program began, the fleet has logged more than 75,000 miles.[40] In August 2009 Ford delivered the first Escape Plug-in equipped with intelligent vehicle-to-grid (V2G) communications and control system technology, and Ford plans to equip all 21 plug-in hybrid Escapes with the vehicle-to-grid communications technology.[40] Sales of the Escape PHEV were scheduled for 2012.[39]
On January 14, 2008, Toyota announced they would start sales of lithium-ion battery PHEVs by 2010,[41][42] but later in the year Toyota indicated they would be offered to commercial fleets in 2009.[43]
On March 27, theCalifornia Air Resources Board (CARB) modified their regulations, requiring automobile manufacturers to produce 58,000 plug-in hybrids during 2012 through 2014.[44] This requirement is an asked-for alternative to an earlier mandate to produce 25,000 purezero-emissions vehicles, reducing that requirement to 5,000.[45] On June 26,Volkswagen announced that they would be introducing production plug-ins based on theVolkswagen Golf compact car. Volkswagen uses the term 'TwinDrive' to denote a PHEV.[46] In September,Mazda was reported to be planning PHEVs.[47] On September 23,Chrysler announced that they had prototyped a plug-inJeep Wrangler and aChrysler Town and Country minivan, both PHEV with series powertrains, and an all-electric Dodge sports car, and said that one of the three vehicles would go into production.[48][49]
On October 3, the U.S. enacted theEnergy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008. The legislation provided tax credits for the purchase ofplug-in electric vehicles of battery capacity over 4 kilowatt-hours.[50][51] Thefederal tax credits were extended and modified by theAmerican Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009, but now the battery capacity must be over 5kWh and the credit phases out after the automaker has sold at least 200,000 vehicles in the U.S.[52]
On December 15, 2008, BYD Auto began selling theBYD F3DM inChina, becoming the first production plug-in hybrid sold in the world, though initially was available only for corporate and government customers.[55][56][57] Sales to the general public began inShenzhen in March 2010,[8][9] but because the F3DM nearly doubles the price of cars that run on conventional fuel, BYD expects subsidies from the local government to make the plug-in affordable to personal buyers.[8]
Toyota tested 600pre-productionPrius Plug-ins in Europe and North America in 2009 and 2010.[58][59]Volvo Cars built two demonstration versions ofVolvo V70 Plug-in Hybrids in 2009 but did not proceed with production. TheV60 plug-in hybrid was released in 2011 and was available for sale.
In October 2010Lotus Engineering unveiled theLotus CityCar, a plug-in series hybridconcept car designed forflex-fuel operation onethanol, ormethanol as well as regular gasoline.[60][61]
GM launched the Chevrolet Volt in the U.S. on November 30, 2010, and retail deliveries began in December 2010.[10] Its sibling the Opel/Vauxhall Ampera was launched in Europe between late 2011 and early 2012. GM calls itsChevrolet Voltseries plug-in hybrid an "Extended-Range Electric Vehicle".[62][63]
The first deliveries of theFisker Karma took place in July 2011,[64] and deliveries to retail customers began in November 2011. TheToyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid was released in Japan in January 2012,[65] followed by the United States in February 2012.[66] Deliveries of the Prius PHV in Europe began in late June 2012.[67] TheFord C-Max Energi was released in the U.S. in October 2012,[68] theVolvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid in Sweden by late 2012.[69]
TheHonda Accord Plug-in Hybrid was released in selected U.S. markets in January 2013,[70] and theMitsubishi Outlander PHEV in Japan in January 2013, becoming the firstSUV plug-in hybrid in the market.[71] Deliveries of theFord Fusion Energi began in February 2013.[72][73] BYD Auto stopped production of its BYD F3DM due to low sales,[74] and its successor, theBYD Qin, began sales in December 2013.[54]
Deliveries to retail customers of the limited editionMcLaren P1 supercar began in the UK in October 2013,[75] and thePorsche Panamera S E-Hybrid began deliveries in the U.S. in November 2013. The first retail deliveries of theCadillac ELR took place in the U.S. in December 2013.[76] TheBMW i8 and the limited editionVolkswagen XL1 were released to retail customers in Germany in June 2014.[77][78] ThePorsche 918 Spyder was also released in Europe and the U.S. in 2014. The first units of theAudi A3 Sportback e-tron andVolkswagen Golf GTE were registered in Germany in August 2014.[79]
In 2013, Volkswagen started limited production on theVolkswagen XL1, a two-seater diesel-powered plug-in hybrid vehicle designed to be able to travel 100 km/L (280 mpg‑imp; 235 mpg‑US) on diesel, while still being both roadworthy and practical. The model is unique in that it is one of the only mass produced plug-in diesel hybrid vehicles and one of the only mass produced diesel hybrid vehicles in general.[80][81][82]
In December 2014 BMW announced the group is planning to offer plug-in hybrid versions of all its core-brand models using eDrive technology developed for itsBMW i brand plug-in vehicles (BMW i3 and BMW i8). The goal of the company is to use plug-in technology to continue offering high performance vehicles while reducing CO2 emissions below 100g/km.[83] The first model available for retail sales will be the 2016BMW X5 eDrive, with the production version unveiled at the 2015Shanghai Motor Show.[84] Thesecond generation Chevrolet Volt was unveiled at the January 2015North American International Auto Show,[85] and retail deliveries began in the U.S. and Canada in October 2015.[86][87]
In March 2015Audi said they planned on making a plug-in hybrid version of every model series, and that they expect plug-in hybrids, together with natural gas vehicles and battery-electric drive systems, to have a key contribution in achieving the company's CO2 targets.[88] Also in March 2015,Mercedes-Benz announced that the company's main emphasis regarding alternative drives in the next years will be on plug-in hybrids. The carmaker planned to introduce 10 new plug-in hybrid models by 2017.[89] Other plug-in hybrid released in 2015 are theBYD Tang,Volkswagen Passat GTE,Volvo XC90 T8, and theHyundai Sonata PHEV.
By the end of 2015, over 517,000 highway legal plug-in hybrid electric cars have been sold worldwide since December 2008 out of total global sales of more than 1.25 million light-duty plug-in electric cars.[90][91]
Hyundai Motor Company made the official debut of its three modelHyundai Ioniq line-up at the 2016Geneva Motor Show.[94] The Ioniq family ofelectric drive vehicles includes theIoniq Plug-in, which was released in the U.S. in the fourth quarter of 2017.[95]
The second generation Prius plug-in hybrid, calledPrius Prime in the U.S. and Prius PHV in Japan,[96] was unveiled at the 2016New York International Auto Show. Retail deliveries of the Prius Prime began in the U.S. in November 2016.[97] Unlike its predecessor, the Prime runs entirely on electricity in EV mode.[98]
Global sales of the Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV passed the 100,000 unit milestone in March 2016.[99][100]
In January 2016, Chrysler debuted its plug-in hybrid minivan, theChrysler Pacifica Hybrid.[101] This was the first hybrid minivan of any type in the United States. It was first sold in the United States, Canada, and Mexico in 2017.
In December 2017, Honda began retail deliveries of theHonda Clarity Plug-In Hybrid in the United States and Canada.[102]
In 2019, General Motors ended production of all plug-in hybrid models, including the Chevrolet Volt and theCadillac CT6 PHEV, as it focuses on battery electric vehicles.[103][104][105]
In March 2019, Chinese start-up manufacturerLi Auto introduced its first model, theLi One, a plug-in hybrid vehicle which became the first range extender electric vehicle from China. It is powered 1.2-liter turbocharged petrol engine, used exclusively as arange extender to recharge the battery, and an electric motor.[106] Deliveries started in the fourth quarter of 2019, and by May 2020, deliveries reached 10,000 unit.[107] Li Auto went on to became a major plug-in hybrid manufacturer in China, solely producing range extender electric SUVs until 2024 when it introduced its battery electric vehicle.
In May 2019, at the high-performance end, Ferrari presented theFerrari SF90 Stradale, a plug-in hybrid supercar. A 7.9 kWhlithium-ion battery for provides 26 km (16 miles) of electric range and powers three electric motors, adding a combined output of 162 kW (220 PS; 217 hp)[108] to a twin-turbocharged V8 engine rated at a power output of 735 kW (1,000 PS; 986 hp) at 7,500 rpm.[109][108][110]
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In December 2019, Toyota introduced its first plug-in hybrid SUV, theToyota RAV4 Prime/PHEV. The model has a claimed acceleration of 0–100 km/h (0–62 mph) in 6.2 seconds, which, at the time of its introduction, made it the quickest Toyota model by acceleration after theToyota GR Supra sports car.[111][112] It rolled out in certain markets such as Japan, Europe and North America in 2020. This model is also marketed by Suzuki as the Suzuki Across in Europe.[113]
In 2020 and 2021,Hyundai Motor Group started adding new plug-in hybrid vehicles in its line-up, such as theHyundai Tucson Plug-In Hybrid,Hyundai Santa Fe Plug-In Hybrid,Kia Ceed PHEV,Kia Sportage PHEV, andKia Sorento PHEV. These models are offered mainly for Europe, and in addition North America.[114][115][116][117][118]
In June 2020, BYD Auto introduced a petrol engine dedicated solely for plug-in hybrid application called the Xiaoyun. The 1.5-liter engine is designed specifically for its newly introducedDM-i plug-in hybrid technology. The engine uses theAtkinson cycle and has athermal efficiency of up to 43%, which was among the highest for mass-produced petrol engines globally. The DM-i system itself adopts a complex "electric-based"series-parallel architecture. BYD also emphasized that vehicles equipped with this technology will be priced competitively with petrol-powered vehicles.[119] The DM-i became a vital technology for BYD as it ended production of traditional petrol-powered vehicles in 2022.[120]
In 2021, BYD began introducing its new plug-in hybrid systems, DM-i and DM-p, across its vehicle lineup ranging from sedans, SUVs and a minivan, which was met with strong market feedback in China. These systems are more affordable and efficient than previous generations, and their popularity was further boosted by local license plate policies that favor plug-in hybrids and battery electric vehicles. As a result, demand surged rapidly, leading to slower delivery times.[121] By 2022, BYD accounted for over 35% of global plug-in hybrid vehicle production.[18]
In North America,Stellantis began sales of theJeep Wrangler 4xe in 2021. It is the plug-in hybrid version of the JL Wrangler that offers around 35 km (22 mi) pure electric range. It became the best-selling plug-in hybrid in the United States in 2022, outselling the Toyota RAV4 Prime.[122][123]
In October 2021, Mitsubishi Motors updated the Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV with a new generation.[124] Initially debuting in Japan, the model it retains the4B12 engine used by the previous generation Outlander PHEV, coupled with a more powerful motor and a larger 20 kWh battery. With rear motor improvements, the Outlander PHEV is able to seat 7 people.[125]
Honda discontinued its only plug-in hybrid model in markets outside China, the Honda Clarity Plug-In Hybrid in 2021.[1]
TheMazda CX-60 PHEV, the first plug-in hybrid vehicle from Mazda, went on sale in early 2022 initially for the European market.[126] The same plug-in hybrid powertrain was later adopted by the larger Mazda CX-80 and CX-90.[127]
In April 2024, BYD Auto launched theDM-i 5.0, its fifth-generation plug-in hybrid technology on theBYD Qin L DM-i andBYD Seal 06 DM-i.[128] BYD claims, the system brought improved efficiency with 46.06% thermal efficiency, fuel consumption of 2.9 L/100 km (34 km/l; 81 mpg‑US), and a maximum range of 2,100 km (1,300 mi). According to theInternational Energy Agency, plug-in hybrid sales in China grew faster than battery electric vehicles through early 2024, and all plug-in electric vehicles reached over 40% retail share in March. By year-end, China accounted for 3 out of 4 of global plug-in sales.[129]
In October 2024,Geely released the Leishen EM-i plug-in hybrid system, also known as the NordThor 2.0, which directly competes with BYD's technology.[130] While it is not Geely's first plug-in hybrid system, the EM-i is claimed to have the world's highest thermal efficiency at 46.5%, and outperforms BYD's DM-i 5.0 system with combined range of 2,390 km (1,490 mi) and a fuel consumption of 2.67 L/100 km (37.5 km/l; 88 mpg‑US).[131] BYD and Geely representatives had a public argumentation regarding which system has the higher thermal efficiency.[132]
Nissan released its first ever plug-in hybrid vehicle in April 2025, theNissan Frontier Pro pickup truck.[133] It is co-developed with Zhengzhou Nissan. It was followed by theNissan N6 sedan in August 2025, co-developed withDongfeng Nissan.[134] These models are developed and produced in China with plans for global market release.
PHEVs are based on the same three basic powertrain architectures of conventional hybrids; aseries hybrid is propelled by electric motors only, aparallel hybrid is propelled both by its internal combustion engine and by electric motors operating concurrently, and aseries-parallel hybrid operates in either mode. While a plain hybrid vehicle charges itsbattery from its engine only, a plug-in hybrid can obtain a significant amount of the energy required to recharge its battery from external sources.[citation needed]
These contain two different energy recovery systems.
TheMercedes-AMG ONE is a plug-indual hybrid.
TheMercedes-Benz C-Class (W206) and theMercedes C254/X254 also have anelectrically assisted turbocharger/MGU-H.[135][136]
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TheHonda CR-V e:FCEV is a plug-in hybrid electric,fuel cell vehicle. It is equipped with a front-mounted electric motor, two high-pressurehydrogen tanks with a total capacity of 4.3 kg (9.5 lb), a 17.7 kWh battery with plug-in charging capability with no internal combustion engine.[137]
The battery charger can be on-board or external to the vehicle. The process for an on-board charger is best explained as AC power being converted into DC power, resulting in the battery being charged.[138] On-board chargers are limited in capacity by their weight and size, and by the limited capacity of general-purpose AC outlets. Dedicated off-board chargers can be as large and powerful as the user can afford, but require returning to the charger; high-speed chargers may be shared by multiple vehicles.
Using the electric motor's inverter allows the motor windings to act as the transformer coils, and the existing high-power inverter as the AC-to-DC charger. As these components are already required on the car, and are designed to handle any practical power capability, they can be used to create a very powerful form of on-board charger with no significant additional weight or size.AC Propulsion uses this charging method, referred to as "reductive charging".[139]
A plug-in hybrid operates incharge-depleting andcharge-sustaining modes. Combinations of these two modes are termedblended mode or mixed-mode. These vehicles can be designed to drive for an extended range inall-electric mode, either at low speeds only or at all speeds. These modes manage the vehicle's battery discharge strategy, and their use has a direct effect on the size and type of battery required:[140]
Charge-depleting mode allows a fully charged PHEV to operate exclusively (or depending on the vehicle, almost exclusively, except during hard acceleration) on electric power until its battery state of charge is depleted to a predetermined level, at which time the vehicle's internal combustion engine or fuel cell will beengaged. This period is the vehicle's all-electric range. This is the only mode that abattery electric vehicle can operate in, hence their limited range.[141]
Mixed mode describes a trip using a combination of multiple modes. For example, a car may begin a trip in low-speed charge-depleting mode, then enter onto a freeway and operate in blended mode. The driver might exit the freeway and drive without the internal combustion engine until all-electric range is exhausted. The vehicle can revert to a charge sustaining-mode until the final destination is reached. This contrasts with a charge-depleting trip that would be driven within the limits of a PHEV's all-electric range.
Most PHEV's also have two additional charge sustaining modes:
Battery hold; the electric motor is locked out and the vehicle operates exclusively on combustion power, so that whatever charge is left in the battery remains for when mixed mode or full electric operation are re-engaged, whilstregenerative braking will still be available to boost the battery charge. On some PHEVs, vehicle services that use the traction battery (such as heating and air conditioning) are placed in a low power consumption mode to further conserve the remaining battery charge. The lock-out of the electric motor is automatically overridden (charge permitting) should full acceleration be required.
Self charge; the electric motor's armature is engaged to the transmission, but is connected to the battery so that it runs as a generator and therefore recharges the battery whilst the car is in motion, although this comes at the expense of higher fuel consumption, as the combustion engine has to both power the vehicle itself and charge the battery. This is useful for 'charging on the move' when there are limited places to plug the vehicle in.
The optimum battery size varies depending on whether the aim is to reduce fuel consumption, running costs, or emissions, but a 2009 study[142] concluded that "The best choice of PHEV battery capacity depends critically on the distance that the vehicle will be driven between charges. Our results suggest that for urban driving conditions and frequent charges every 10 miles or less, a low-capacity PHEV sized with an AER (all-electric range) of about 7 miles would be a robust choice for minimizing gasoline consumption, cost, and greenhouse gas emissions. For less frequent charging, every 20–100 miles, PHEVs release fewer GHGs, butHEVs are more cost effective."
PHEVs typically require deeperbattery charging and discharging cycles than conventional hybrids. Because the number of full cycles influences battery life, this may be less than in traditional HEVs, which do not deplete their batteries as fully. Nonetheless, some authors argue that PHEVs will soon become standard in the automobile industry.[143] Design issues and trade-offs against battery life, capacity, heat dissipation, weight, costs, and safety need to be solved.[144] Advanced battery technology is under development, promising greater energy densities by both mass and volume,[145] and battery life expectancy is expected to increase.[146]
The cathodes of some early 2007 lithium-ion batteries are made from lithium–cobalt metal oxide. This material is expensive, and cells made with it can release oxygen if overcharged. If the cobalt is replaced withiron phosphates, the cells will not burn or release oxygen under any charge. At early 2007 gasoline and electricity prices, the break-even point is reached after six to ten years of operation. The payback period may be longer for plug-in hybrids, because of their larger, more expensive batteries.[147]
Nickel–metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries can be recycled; Toyota, for example, has a recycling program in place under which dealers are paid a US$200 credit for each battery returned.[148] Plug-in hybrids typically use larger battery packs than comparable conventional hybrids, however, and thus require more resources.Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) has suggested that utilities could purchase used batteries for backup and load leveling purposes. They state that while these used batteries may be no longer usable in vehicles, their residual capacity still has significant value.[149] More recently,General Motors (GM) has said it has been "approached by utilities interested in using recycled Volt batteries as a power storage system, a secondary market that could bring down the cost of the Volt and other plug-in vehicles for consumers".[150]
Ultracapacitors (or "supercapacitors") are used in some plug-in hybrids, such asAFS Trinity's concept prototype, to store rapidly available energy with their highpower density, in order to keep batteries within safe resistive heating limits and extend battery life.[151][152] The CSIRO'sUltraBattery combines asupercapacitor and a lead–acid battery in a single unit, creating a hybrid car battery that lasts longer, costs less and is more powerful than current technologies used in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs).[153]
There are several companies that are convertingfossil fuel non-hybrid vehicles to plug-in hybrids:[154][155]
Aftermarket conversion of an existing production hybrid to a plug-in hybrid[156] typically involves increasing the capacity of the vehicle'sbattery pack and adding an on-board AC-to-DC charger. Ideally, the vehicle's powertrain software would be reprogrammed to make full use of the battery pack's additional energy storage capacity and power output.
Many early plug-in hybridelectric vehicle conversions have been based on theToyota Prius.[157] Some of the systems have involved replacement of the vehicle's original NiMH battery pack and its electronic control unit. Others add an additional battery back onto the original battery pack.[158]
In recent years, demand for all- electric vehicles, especially in the United States market, has been driven by government incentives through subsidies, lobbyists, and taxes.[159] In particular, American sales of theNissan Leaf have depended on generous incentives and special treatment in thestate of Georgia, the top selling Leaf market.[160] According to international market research, 60% of respondents believe a battery driving range of less than 160 km (99 mi) is unacceptable even though only 2% drive more than that distance per day.[161] Among popular current all-electric vehicles, only the Tesla (with the most expensive version of theModel S offering a 265 miles (426 km) range in theU.S. Environmental Protection Agency 5-cycle test) significantly exceeds this threshold. In 2021, for the 2022 model year, the Nissan Leaf has an EPA rated range of 212 miles (341 km) for the 60 kWh model.
Plug-in hybrids provide the extended range and potential for refueling of conventional hybrids while enabling drivers to use battery electric power for at least a significant part of their typical daily driving. The average trip to or from work in the United States in 2009 was 11.8 miles (19.0 km),[162] while the average distance commuted to work in England and Wales in 2011 was slightly lower at 9.3 miles (15 km).[163] Since building a PHEV with a longer all-electric range adds weight and cost, and reduces cargo and/or passenger space, there is not a specific all-electric range that is optimal. The accompanying graph shows the observed all-electric range, in miles, for four popular U.S. market plug-in hybrids, as tested byPopular Mechanics magazine.[164]
A key design parameter of the Chevrolet Volt was a target of 40 miles (64 km) for the all-electric range, selected to keep the battery size small and lower costs, and mainly because research showed that 78% of dailycommuters in the U.S. travel 40 mi (64 km) or less. This target range would allow most travel to be accomplished electrically driven and the assumption was made that charging will take place at home overnight. This requirement translated using alithium-ion battery pack with an energy storage capacity of16 kWh considering that the battery would be used until thestate of charge (SOC) of the battery reached 30%.[165][166]
In October 2014 General Motors reported, based on data collected through itsOnStartelematics system since Volt deliveries began, and with over 1 billion miles (1.6 billion km) traveled, that Volt owners drive about 62.5% of their trips inall-electric mode.[167] In May 2016, Ford reported, based on data collected from more than 610 million miles (976 million km) logged by its electrified vehicles through its telematics system, that drivers of these vehicles run an average of 13,500 mi (21,700 km) annually on their vehicles, with about half of those miles operating in all-electric mode. A breakdown of these figures show an average daily commute of 42 mi (68 km) for Ford Energi plug-in hybrid drivers. Ford notes that with the enhanced electric range of the 2017 model year model, the averageFusion Energi commuter could go the entire day using no gasoline, if the car is fully charged both, before leaving for work and before leaving for home. According to Ford data, currently most customers are likely charging their vehicles only at home.[168]
The 2015 edition of the EPA's annual report "Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends" estimates the following utility factors for 2015model year plug-in hybrids to represent the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity by an average driver, whether in electric only or blended modes: 83% for theBMW i3 REx, 66% for the Chevrolet Volt, 45% for theFord Energi models, 43% for theMcLaren P1, 37% for theBMW i8, and 29% for theToyota Prius PHV.[169] A 2014 analysis conducted by theIdaho National Laboratory using a sample of 21,600 all-electric cars and plug-in hybrids, found that Volt owners traveled on average 9,112 miles in all-electric mode (e-miles) per year, while Leaf owners traveled 9,697 e-miles per year, despite the Volt's shorter all-electric range, about half of the Leaf's.[170]
Plug-in hybrids have the potential to be even more efficient than conventional hybrids because a more limited use of the PHEV's internal combustion engine may allow the engine to be used at closer to its maximum efficiency. While aToyota Prius is likely to convert fuel to motive energy on average at about 30% efficiency (well below the engine's 38% peak efficiency), the engine of a PHEV with 70 km (43 mi) of electric range would be likely to operate far more often near its peak efficiency because the batteries can serve the modest power needs at times when the combustion engine would be forced to run well below its peak efficiency.[141] The actual efficiency achieved depends on losses from electricity generation, inversion, battery charging/discharging, the motor controller and motor itself, the way a vehicle is used (itsduty cycle), and the opportunities to recharge by connecting to the electrical grid.
Eachkilowatt hour of battery capacity in use will displace up to 50 U.S. gallons (190 L; 42 imp gal) ofpetroleum fuels per year (gasoline ordiesel).[171] Also, electricity is multi-sourced and, as a result, it gives the greatest degree ofenergy resilience.[172]
The actualfuel economy for PHEVs depends on their powertrain's operating modes, the all-electric range, and the amount of driving between charges. If no gasoline is used themiles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPG-e) depends only on the efficiency of the electric system. The firstmass production PHEV available in the U.S. market, the 2011Chevrolet Volt, with an EPA rated all-electric range of 35 mi (56 km) and an additional gasoline-only extended range of 344 mi (554 km), has an EPA combined city/highway fuel economy of 93 MPG-e inall-electric mode, and 37 mpg‑US (6.4 L/100 km; 44 mpg‑imp) in gasoline-only mode, for an overall combined gas-electric fuel economy rating of 60 mpg‑US (3.9 L/100 km; 72 mpg‑imp) equivalent (MPG-e).[173][174] The EPA also included in the Volt'sfuel economy label a table showing fuel economy and electricity consumed for five different scenarios: 30, 45, 60 and 75 mi (121 km) driven between a full charge, and a never charge scenario.[174] According to this table the fuel economy goes up to 168 mpg‑US (1.40 L/100 km; 202 mpg‑imp) equivalent (MPG-e) with 45 mi (72 km) driven between full charges.[173]
For the more comprehensivefuel economy and environment label that will be mandatory in the U.S. beginning inmodel year 2013, theNational Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) andEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued two separate fuel economy labels for plug-in hybrids because of their design complexity, as PHEVS can operate in two or three operating modes: all-electric, blended, and gasoline-only.[175][176] One label is for series hybrid or extended range electric vehicle (like the Chevy Volt), with all-electric and gasoline-only modes; and a second label for blended mode orseries-parallel hybrid, that includes a combination of both gasoline and plug-in electric operation; and gasoline only, like a conventional hybrid vehicle.[175][176]
TheSociety of Automotive Engineers (SAE) developed their recommended practice in 1999 for testing and reporting the fuel economy of hybrid vehicles and included language to address PHEVs. An SAE committee is currently working to review procedures for testing and reporting the fuel economy of PHEVs.[177] The Toronto Atmospheric Fund tested ten retrofitted plug-in hybrid vehicles that achieved an average of 5.8 litres per 100 kilometre or 40.6 miles per gallon over six months in 2008, which was considered below the technology's potential.[178]
In real world testing using normal drivers, some Prius PHEV conversions may not achieve much better fuel economy than HEVs. For example, a plug-in Prius fleet, each with a 30 miles (48 km) all-electric range, averaged only 51 mpg‑US (4.6 L/100 km; 61 mpg‑imp) in a 17,000-mile (27,000 km) test in Seattle,[179] and similar results with the same kind of conversion battery models atGoogle'sRechargeIT initiative. Moreover, the additional battery pack costsUS$10,000–US$11,000.[180][181]
A study published in 2014 by researchers fromLamar University,Iowa State University andOak Ridge National Laboratory compared the operating costs of PHEVs of various electric ranges (10, 20, 30, and 40 miles) with conventional gasoline vehicles and non-plugin hybrid-electric vehicles (HEVs) for different payback periods, considering different charging infrastructure deployment levels and gasoline prices. The study concluded that:[182]
Disadvantages of PHEVs include the additional cost, weight and size of a largerbattery pack. According to a 2010 study by theNational Research Council, the cost of alithium-ion battery pack is aboutUS$1,700/kW·h of usable energy, and considering that a PHEV with 10 km (6.2 mi) of electric range requires about 2.0 kW·h and a PHEV with 40 km (25 mi) of electric range about 8 kW·h, the estimated manufacturer cost of the battery pack for a PHEV with 10 km (6.2 mi) of electric range is aroundUS$3,000 and it goes up toUS$14,000 for a PHEV with 40 km (25 mi) of electric range.[183][184] According to the same study, even though costs are expected to decline by 35% by 2020, market penetration is expected to be slow and therefore PHEVs are not expected to significantly impact oil consumption or carbon emissions before 2030, unless a fundamental breakthrough in battery technologies occurs.[183][184][185]
| Plug-in type by EV range | Similar production model | Type of drivetrain | Manufacturer additional cost compared to conventional non-hybridmid-size | Estimated cost of battery pack | Cost of electric system upgrade at home | Expected gasoline savings compared to a HEV | Annual gasoline savings compared to a HEV(2) |
16 km | Prius Plug-in(1) | US$6,300 | US$3,300 | More thanUS$1,000 | 20% | 260 L (70 US gal; 58 imp gal) | |
64 km | US$18,100 | US$14,000 | More thanUS$1,000 | 55% | 760 L (200 US gal; 170 imp gal) | ||
| Notes: (1) Considers the HEV technology used in theToyota Prius with a larger battery pack. The Prius Plug-in estimated all-electric range is 23 km (14.5 miles)[186] (2) Assuming 24,000 km (15,000 miles) per year. | |||||||
According to the 2010 NRC study, although a mile driven on electricity is cheaper than one driven on gasoline, lifetime fuel savings are not enough to offset plug-ins' high upfront costs, and it will take decades before the break-even point is achieved.[185] Furthermore, hundreds of billions of dollars in government subsidies and incentives are likely to be required to achieve rapid plug-in market penetration in the U.S.[184][185]
A 2013 study by theAmerican Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy reported that battery costs came down fromUS$1,300 per kilowatt hour in 2007 toUS$500 per kilowatt hour in 2012. TheU.S. Department of Energy has set cost targets for its sponsored battery research ofUS$300 per kilowatt hour in 2015 andUS$125 per kilowatt hour by 2022. Cost reductions through advances in battery technology and higher production volumes will allow plug-in electric vehicles to be more competitive with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.[187]
A study published in 2011 by theBelfer Center,Harvard University, found that the gasoline costs savings of PHEVs over the vehicles' lifetimes do not offset their higher purchase prices. This finding was estimated comparing their lifetimenet present value at 2010 purchase and operating costs for the U.S. market, and assuming nogovernment subidies.[188][189] According to the study estimates, a PHEV with 40 km (25 mi) of electric range isUS$5,377 more expensive than a conventional internal combustion engine, while abattery electric vehicle (BEV) isUS$4,819 more expensive. The study also examined how this balance will change over the next 10 to 20 years, assuming that battery costs will decrease while gasoline prices increase. Under the future scenarios considered, the study found that BEVs will be significantly less expensive than conventional cars (US$1,155 toUS$7,181 cheaper), while PHEVs, will be more expensive than BEVs in almost all comparison scenarios, and only less expensive than conventional cars in a scenario with very low battery costs and high gasoline prices. BEVs are simpler to build and do not use liquid fuel, while PHEVs have more complicated powertrains and still have gasoline-powered engines.[188]
Increasedpollution is expected to occur in some areas with the adoption of PHEVs, but most areas will experience a decrease.[190] A study by the ACEEE predicts that widespread PHEV use in heavily coal-dependent areas would result in an increase in local netsulfur dioxide andmercury emissions, given emissions levels from most coal plants currently supplying power to the grid.[191] Althoughclean coal technologies could create power plants that supply grid power from coal without emitting significant amounts of such pollutants, the higher cost of the application of these technologies may increase the price of coal-generated electricity. The net effect on pollution is dependent on the fuel source of the electrical grid (fossil or renewable, for example) and the pollution profile of the power plants themselves. Identifying, regulating and upgrading single point pollution source such as a power plant—or replacing a plant altogether—may also be more practical. From a human health perspective, shifting pollution away from large urban areas may be considered a significant advantage.[192]
According to a 2009 study by The National Academy of Science, "Electric vehicles and grid-dependent (plug-in) hybrid vehicles showed somewhat higher nonclimate damages than many other technologies."[193] Efficiency of plug-in hybrids is also impacted by the overall efficiency ofelectric power transmission. Transmission and distribution losses in the USA were estimated at 7.2% in 1995[194] and 6.5% in 2007.[195] By life cycle analysis of air pollution emissions, natural gas vehicles are currently the lowest emitter[citation needed].
The additional electrical consumption to recharge the plug-in vehicles could push many households in areas that do not have off-peak tariffs into the higher priced tier and negate financial benefits.[196] Customers under such tariffs could see significant savings by being careful about when the vehicle was charged, for example, by using a timer to restrict charging to off-peak hours. Thus, an accurate comparison of the benefit requires each household to evaluate its current electrical usage tier and tariffs weighed against the cost of gasoline and the actual observed operational cost of electric mode vehicle operation.
The effect of PHEVs on greenhouse emissions is complex. Plug-in hybrid vehicles operating onall-electric mode do not emit harmfultailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power. The clean air benefit is usually local because depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the generation plants.[197] In the same way, PHEVs do not emitgreenhouse gases from the onboard source of power, but from the point of view of awell-to-wheel assessment, the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used forelectricity generation. From the perspective of a fulllife cycle analysis, the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from zero-emission sources such as renewable (e.g.wind power,solar energy orhydroelectricity) ornuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions.[197][198] On the other hand, when PEVs are recharged fromcoal-fired plants, they usually produce slightly more greenhouse gas emissions thaninternal combustion engine vehicles.[197] In the case of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle when operating in hybrid mode with assistance of the internal combustion engine, tailpipe and greenhouse emissions are lower in comparison to conventional cars because of their higherfuel economy.[198]
In 2009, researchers atArgonne National Laboratory adapted theirGREET model to conduct a fullwell-to-wheels (WTW) analysis of energy use andgreenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles for several scenarios, considering different on-board fuels and different sources of electricity generation for recharging the vehicle batteries. Three US regions were selected for the analysis,California,New York, andIllinois, as these regions include major metropolitan areas with significant variations in their energy generation mixes. The full cycle analysis results were also reported for the US generation mix and renewable electricity to examine cases of average and clean mixes, respectively[199] This 2009 study showed a wide spread of petroleum use and GHG emissions among the different fuel production technologies and grid generation mixes. The following table summarizes the main results:[199]
| PHEVwell-to-wheels Petroleum energy use and greenhouse gas emissions for an all-electric range between 10 and 40 miles (16 and 64 km) with different on-board fuels.(1) (as a % relative to aninternal combustion engine vehicle that uses fossil fuel gasoline) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Analysis | Reformulated gasoline andultra-low-sulfur diesel | E85 fuel from corn andswitchgrass | Fuel cell hydrogen | ||
| Petroleum energy use reduction | 40–60% | 70–90% | more than 90% | ||
| GHG emissions reduction(2) | 30–60% | 40–80% | 10–100% | ||
| Source: Center for Transportation Research,Argonne National Laboratory (2009). See Table 1.[199] Notes: (1) Simulations for year 2020 with PHEV model year 2015. (2) No direct orindirect land use changes included in the WTW analysis for bio-mass fuel feedstocks.[200][201] | |||||
The Argonne study found that PHEVs offered reductions in petroleum energy use as compared with regular hybrid electric vehicles. More petroleum energy savings and also more GHG emissions reductions were realized as the all-electric range increased, except when electricity used to recharge was dominated by coal or oil-fired power generation. As expected, electricity from renewable sources realized the largest reductions in petroleum energy use and GHG emissions for all PHEVs as the all-electric range increased. The study also concluded that plug-in vehicles that employ biomass-based fuels (biomass-E85 and -hydrogen) may not realize GHG emissions benefits over regular hybrids if power generation is dominated by fossil sources.[199]
A 2008 study by researchers atOak Ridge National Laboratory analyzed oil use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of plug-in hybrids relative to hybrid electric vehicles under several scenarios for years 2020 and 2030.[202] The study considered the mix of power sources for 13 U.S. regions that would be used during recharging of vehicles, generally a combination of coal, natural gas and nuclear energy, and to a lesser extent renewable energy.[202][203] A 2010 study conducted atArgonne National Laboratory reached similar findings, concluding that PHEVs will reduce oil consumption but could produce very different greenhouse gas emissions for each region depending on the energy mix used to generate the electricity to recharge the plug-in hybrids.[204][205]
| This section needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(December 2023) |
In October 2014, theU.S. Environmental Protection Agency published the 2014 edition of its annual reportLight-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends. For the first time, the report presents an analysis of the impact ofalternative fuel vehicles, with emphasis inplug-in electric vehicles because as their market share is approaching 1%, PEVs began to have a measurable impact on the U.S. overall new vehicle fuel economy and CO2 emissions.[206][207]
EPA's report included the analysis of 12 all-electric passengers cars and 10 plug-in hybrids available in the market asmodel year 2014. For purposes of an accurate estimation of emissions, the analysis took into consideration the differences in operation between those PHEVs like the Chevrolet Volt that can operate inall-electric mode without using gasoline, and those that operate in a blended mode like theToyota Prius PHV, which uses both energy stored in the battery and energy from the gasoline tank to propel the vehicle, but that can deliver substantial all-electric driving in blended mode. In addition, since the all-electric range of plug-in hybrids depends on the size of the battery pack, the analysis introduced a utility factor as a projection, on average, of the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity (in electric only and blended modes) by an average driver. The following table shows the overall EV/hybrid fuel economy expressed in terms ofmiles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg-e) and the utility factor for the ten MY2014 plug-in hybrids available in the U.S. market. The study used the utility factor (since in pure EV mode there are no tailpipe emissions) and the EPA best estimate of the CO2tailpipe emissions produced by these vehicles in real world city and highway operation based on the EPA 5-cycle label methodology, using a weighted 55% city/45% highway driving. The results are shown in the following table.[206]
In addition, the EPA accounted for the upstream CO2 emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity required to charge the PHEVs. Since electricity production in the United States varies significantly from region to region, the EPA considered three scenarios/ranges with the low end of the range corresponding to the California powerplant emissions factor, the middle of the range represented by the national average powerplant emissions factor, and the upper end of the range corresponding to the powerplant emissions factor for the Rockies. The EPA estimates that the electricity GHG emission factors for various regions of the country vary from 346 g CO2/kW-hr in California to 986 g CO2/kW-hr in the Rockies, with a national average of 648 g CO2/kW-hr.[206] The following table shows the tailpipe emissions and the combined tailpipe and upstream emissions for each of the 10 MY 2014 PHEVs available in the U.S. market.
| Comparison of tailpipe and upstream CO2 emissions(1) estimated by EPA for the MY 2014 plug-in hybrids available in the U.S. market as of September 2014[update][206] | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vehicle | EPA rating combined EV/hybrid (mpg-e) | Utility factor(2) (share EV miles) | Tailpipe CO2 (g/mi) | Tailpipe + Total Upstream CO2 | ||
| Low (g/mi) | Avg (g/mi) | High (g/mi) | ||||
| BMW i3 REx(3) | 88 | 0.83 | 40 | 134 | 207 | 288 |
| Chevrolet Volt | 62 | 0.66 | 81 | 180 | 249 | 326 |
| Cadillac ELR | 54 | 0.65 | 91 | 206 | 286 | 377 |
| Ford C-Max Energi | 51 | 0.45 | 129 | 219 | 269 | 326 |
| Ford Fusion Energi | 51 | 0.45 | 129 | 219 | 269 | 326 |
| Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid | 57 | 0.33 | 130 | 196 | 225 | 257 |
| Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid | 58 | 0.29 | 133 | 195 | 221 | 249 |
| BMW i8 | 37 | 0.37 | 198 | 303 | 351 | 404 |
| Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid | 31 | 0.39 | 206 | 328 | 389 | 457 |
| McLaren P1 | 17 | 0.43 | 463 | 617 | 650 | 687 |
| Average gasoline car | 24.2 | 0 | 367 | 400 | 400 | 400 |
| Notes: (1) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. (2) The utility factor represents, on average, the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity (in electric only and blended modes) by an average driver. (3) The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid[206][208] | ||||||
Most emission analysis use average emissions rates across regions instead of marginal generation at different times of the day. The former approach does not take into account the generation mix within interconnected electricity markets and shifting load profiles throughout the day.[209][210] An analysis by three economist affiliated with theNational Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), published in November 2014, developed a methodology to estimate marginal emissions of electricity demand that vary by location and time of day across the United States. The study used emissions and consumption data for 2007 through 2009, and used the specifications for the Chevrolet Volt (all-electric range of 35 mi (56 km)). The analysis found that marginal emission rates are more than three times as large in theUpper Midwest compared to theWestern U.S., and within regions, rates for some hours of the day are more than twice those for others.[210] Applying the results of the marginal analysis to plug-in electric vehicles, the NBER researchers found that the emissions of charging PEVs vary by region and hours of the day. In some regions, such as the Western U.S. and Texas, CO2 emissions per mile from driving PEVs are less than those from driving a hybrid car. In other regions, such as the Upper Midwest, charging during the recommended hours of midnight to 4 a.m. implies that PEVs generate more emissions per mile than the average car currently on the road. The results show a fundamental tension between electricity load management and environmental goals as the hours when electricity is the least expensive to produce tend to be the hours with the greatest emissions. This occurs because coal-fired units, which have higher emission rates, are most commonly used to meet base-level and off-peak electricity demand; while natural gas units, which have relatively low emissions rates, are often brought online to meet peak demand. This pattern of fuel shifting explains why emission rates tend to be higher at night and lower during periods of peak demand in the morning and evening.[210]
| This section needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(December 2023) |
Since 2008, plug-in hybrids have been commercially available from both specialty manufacturers and from mainstream producers of internal combustion engine vehicles. TheF3DM, released in China in December 2008, was the first production plug-in hybrid sold in the world.[55][56][57] TheChevrolet Volt, launched in the U.S. in December 2010, was the firstmass-production plug-in hybrid by a major carmaker.[10]
There were 1.2 million plug-in hybrid cars on the world roads at the end of 2017.[211] The stock of plug-in hybrids increased to 1.8 million in 2018, out of a global stock of about 5.1 millionplug-in electric passenger cars.[212][211] As of December 2017[update], the United States ranked as the world's largest plug-in hybrid car market with a stock of 360,510 units, followed by China with 276,580 vehicles, Japan with 100,860 units, the Netherlands with 98,220, and the UK with 88,660.[211]
Global sales of plug-in hybrids grew from over 300 units in 2010 to almost 9,000 in 2011, jumped to over 60,000 in 2012, and reached almost 222,000 in 2015.[90] As of December 2015[update], the United States was the world's largest plug-in hybrid car market with a stock of 193,770 units.[90] About 279,000 light-duty plug-in hybrids were sold in 2016,[213] raising the global stock to almost 800,000 highway legal plug-in hybrid electric cars at the end of 2016.[214][215] A total of 398,210 plug-in hybrid cars were sold in 2017, with China as the top selling country with 111,000 units, and the global stock of plug-in hybrids passed the one million unit milestone by the end of 2017.[211]
Global sales ofplug-in electric vehicles have been shifting for several years towards fully electric battery cars. The global ratio between all-electrics (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) went from 56:44 in 2012, to 60:40 in 2015, to 66:34 in 2017, and rose to 69:31 in 2018.[212][216] In 2023, the ratio was 70:30, an increase for plug-in hybrids from the previous 73:27 in 2022.[220]
China's contribution towards global plug-in hybrids share ranged from 30% to 50% in 2017–2018, and fell to 25% in 2020. In 2021, China's share of global plug-in hybrids was 32%, rising to 55% in 2022, and 69% in 2023. From January to August 2024, the share rose to 77%, of which the third quarter reached 82%.[221] Meanwhile, Europe's plug-in hybrid share rose from 28% in 2018 to 65% in 2020, and then fell to 15% in 2024.[18]
| Region | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | 2022 | 2023 | 2024 (Q1–Q3) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 China | 41.9% | 24.6% | 32.3% | 55.5% | 68.9% | 76.6% | |
| Europe |  Germany | 9.2% | 25.6% | 18.0% | 13.2% | 4.4% | 3.2% |
 UK | 5.9% | 6.9% | 7.1% | 3.8% | 3.5% | 2.8% | |
 France | 3.9% | 9.0% | 8.0% | 4.7% | 4.1% | 2.4% | |
 Sweden | 5.5% | 7.1% | 4.3% | 2.5% | 1.5% | 1.1% | |
 Italy | 1.2% | 2.6% | 5.2% | 3.4% | 1.7% | 1.0% | |
 Norway | 3.9% | 3.3% | 2.1% | 0.6% | 0.3% | 0.1% | |
| Other Europe | 7.3% | 10.7% | 11.5% | 6.9% | 6.4% | 4.8% | |
| Europe total | 36.9% | 65.5% | 56.1% | 35.1% | 21.9% | 15.4% | |
| North America |  United States | 16.9% | 7.5% | 9.2% | 6.9% | 7.0% | 5.8% |
| Other North America | 0.6% | 0.1% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | |
| North America total | 17.6% | 7.6% | 9.2% | 6.9% | 7.1% | 5.8% | |
| Asia (except China) |  Japan | 3.0% | 1.3% | 1.3% | 1.4% | 1.3% | 1.3% |
 South Korea | 0.6% | 1.0% | 1.0% | 0.4% | 0.2% | 0.1% | |
| Other Asia | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.6% | 0.4% | 0.2% | |
| Asia total | 3.6% | 2.4% | 2.3% | 2.4% | 1.9% | 1.6% | |
| Southern Hemisphere | 0.1% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.0% | 0.2% | 0.4% | |
Between 2014 and 2019, the global market share of plug-in hybrids was largely led byBYD Auto. The company then saw its global plug-in hybrid market share increasing from 6.0% in 2020 to 39.1% in 2024.Geely Holding was the second largest plug-in hybrid vehicle manufacturer in the world in 2025 with 9.2% share.
Due to the rapid growth of the plug-in hybrid vehicle market in China, manufacturers from outside China experienced decline in global plug-in hybrid market share. Volkswagen Group's global plug-in hybrid share peaked at 16.4% in 2020 before declining steadily to 4.2% in 2024. BMW's share followed a similar pattern, dropping from 9.8% in 2021 to 2.2% in 2024. Stellantis reached its highest share of 8.1% in 2021 but fell to 4.3% in 2024. Toyota's share of plug-in hybrids decreased over time, from 9.9% in 2019 to 2.4% in 2024. Hyundai's share fell from 6.4% in 2019 to 1.7% in 2024.[18]
| Manufacturer | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | 2022 | 2023 | 2024 | 2025 (Q1–Q3) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| BYD Auto | 14.6% | 6.0% | 15.5% | 35.5% | 36.2% | 39.1% | 33.5% |
| Geely Holding | 11.6% | 11.3% | 9.3% | 7.6% | 7.3% | 7.4% | 9.2% |
| Chery Holding | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 1.4% | 2.7% | 4.2% | 7.0% |
| Li Auto | 0.2% | 3.8% | 5.1% | 5.0% | 9.4% | 7.9% | 5.7% |
| Changan Automobile | 0.0% | 0.0% | 1.6% | 5.3% | 5.0% | 5.5% | 5.8% |
| Volkswagen Group | 4.5% | 16.4% | 14.7% | 7.0% | 5.6% | 3.9% | 5.2% |
| Seres Auto | 2.4% | 6.1% | 4.8% | ||||
| Great Wall Motor | 0.1% | 0.1% | 1.0% | 3.9% | 3.9% | 4.0% | 4.7% |
| BMW | 11.9% | 12.4% | 9.8% | 6.2% | 3.8% | 2.2% | 2.6% |
| Dongfeng Motor Group | 0.4% | 0.2% | 0.9% | 3.9% | 1.2% | 1.8% | 2.6% |
| Mercedes-Benz Group | 5.2% | 13.6% | 8.5% | 4.8% | 3.0% | 2.2% | 2.5% |
| Stellantis | 1.1% | 6.2% | 8.1% | 7.4% | 6.3% | 3.1% | 2.3% |
| Toyota | 9.9% | 4.2% | 5.4% | 2.4% | 2.3% | 1.8% | 2.2% |
| SAIC Motor | 11.6% | 6.3% | 5.0% | 3.5% | 2.2% | 2.5% | 2.1% |
| Leapmotor | 0.9% | 0.9% | 0.9% | 0.9% | 1.2% | 1.1% | 1.5% |
| Hyundai Motor Group | 6.4% | 6.4% | 5.7% | 4.4% | 2.7% | 1.4% | 1.3% |
| BAIC Group | 0.2% | 0.5% | 0.9% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.8% | |
| GAC Group | 0.6% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.3% | 0.8% | 0.8% | 0.7% |
| General Motors | 1.4% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.5% | 0.7% |
| This section needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(December 2024) |
Several countries have establishedgrants and tax credits for the purchase of newplug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) including plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, and usually the economic incentive depends on battery size. The U.S. offers afederal income tax credit up toUS$7,500,[223] and several states have additional incentives.[224] The UK offers aPlug-in Car Grant up to a maximum of£5,000 (US$7,600).[225][226] As of April 2011, 15 of the 27European Union member states provide tax incentives for electrically chargeable vehicles, which includes allWestern European countries plus theCzech Republic andRomania. Also 17 countries levycarbon dioxide related taxes on passenger cars as a disincentive. The incentives consist of tax reductions and exemptions, as well as of bonus payments for buyers of all-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles, hybrid vehicles, and somealternative fuel vehicles.[227][228]
Incentives for the development of PHEVs are included in theEnergy Independence and Security Act of 2007.[229] TheEnergy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008, signed into law on October 3, 2008, grants a tax credits for the purchase of PHEVs. PresidentBarack Obama'sNew Energy for America calls for deployment of 1 million plug-in hybrid vehicles by 2015,[230] and on March 19, 2009, he announced programs directing $2.4 billion to electric vehicle development.[231]
TheAmerican Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009[232] modifies the tax credits, including a new one for plug-in electric driveconversion kits and for 2 or 3 wheel vehicles.[233] The ultimate total included in the Act that is going to PHEVs is over $6 billion.[234]
In March 2009, as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, theUS Department of Energy announced the release of two competitive solicitations for up to $2 billion in federal funding for competitively awarded cost-shared agreements for manufacturing of advanced batteries and related drive components as well as up to $400 million fortransportation electrification demonstration and deployment projects. This announcement will also help meet the PresidentBarack Obama's goal of putting one million plug-in hybrid vehicles on the road by 2015.[235]
Public deployments also include:
Electrification of transport (electromobility) is a priority in theEuropean Union Research Programme. It also figures prominently in theEuropean Economic Recovery Plan presented November 2008, in the frame of the Green Car Initiative.DG TREN will support a large European "electromobility" project on electric vehicles and related infrastructure with a total budget of around €50 million as part of the Green Car Initiative.[243]
Organizations that support plug-in hybrids include theWorld Wide Fund for Nature,[244]National Wildlife Federation,[245] andCalCars.[246]
Other supportive organizations arePlug In America, theAlliance for Climate Protection,Friends of the Earth, theRainforest Action Network,Rocky Mountain Institute (Project Get Ready),[247] the San FranciscoBay Area Council,[239] the Apollo Alliance, theSet America Free Coalition, theSilicon Valley Leadership Group, and thePlug-in Hybrid Electric School Bus Project.[248]
FPL and Duke Energy has said that by 2020 all new purchases of fleet vehicles will be plug-in hybrid or all-electric.[249]
After the PHEV model was added to the previous generation in Japan in 2013, it was sequentially launched in regions including Europe, Oceania, North America and ASEAN, and has become a leader in the PHEV category with around 290,000 total units sold thus far. (As of September 2021)
The sure values Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV and Chevrolet Volt follow (the Tesla Model S), with the Japanese SUV surpassing the GM hatchback
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{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)See pp. 9–10, 19–23, 29–28, and Statistical annex, pp. 107–113.
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