Aplenipotentiary (from theLatinplenus "full" andpotens "powerful") is adiplomat who hasfull powers—authorization to sign atreaty or convention on behalf of asovereign.[1] When used as a noun more generally, the word can also refer to any person who has full powers. As an adjective, it describes something which confers full powers, such as anedict or an assignment.[2]
Before the era of rapid international transport or essentially instantaneouscommunication (such astelegraphy in the mid-19th century and thenradio), diplomatic mission chiefs were granted full (plenipotentiary) powers to represent their government in negotiations with their host nation. Conventionally, any representations made or agreements reached with a plenipotentiary would be recognized and complied with by their government.
Historically, the common generic term for high diplomats of the crown or state wasminister. It therefore became customary to style the chiefs of full ranking missions asminister plenipotentiary. This position was roughly equivalent to the modernambassador, a term that historically was reserved mainly for missions between the great powers and also relating to the city-state ofVenice.
Permanent missions at a bilateral level were chiefly limited to relations between large, neighboring or closely allied powers, rarely to the very numerous smallprincipalities, hardly worth the expense. Diplomatic missions were dispatched for specific tasks, such as negotiating a treaty bilaterally, or via aconference of plenipotentiaries, such as theImperial Diet of theHoly Roman Empire. In such cases, it was normal to send a representative minister empowered to cast votes. For example, in theTreaty of Paris, ending the American Revolution,John Adams,Benjamin Franklin andJohn Jay were named "minister plenipotentiary of the United States" to the Netherlands, France and Spain, respectively.
By the time of theVienna Congress (1814–15), which codified diplomatic relations,ambassador had become a common title, and was established as the only class above minister plenipotentiary. It gradually became the standard title for bilateral mission chiefs, as their ranks no longer tended to reflect the importance of the states, which came to be treated as formally equal.
In modern times, heads of state and of government, and more juniorministers and officials, can easily meet or speak with each other personally. Therefore, ambassadors do not require plenipotentiary powers, even though they are designated and accredited as "extraordinary and plenipotentiary".
Besides diplomatic plenipotentiaries, some permanent administrators are also given plenipotentiary powers. Central governments have sometimes conferred plenipotentiary status (either formally or de facto) on territorial governors. This has been most likely to occur when the remoteness of the administered territory made it impracticable for the central government to maintain and exercise its policies, laws and initiatives directly. In modern times, the plenipotentiary title has sometimes been revived; for example, for the administrators of protectorates, or in other cases of indirect rule.
Examples of plenipotentiary administration are given below.
From 1879 to 1884, the explorerHenry Morton Stanley (b. 1841–d. 1904) was styled "Plenipotentiary of theCommittee for the Studies of Upper Congo" (CEHC) (from 1882, renamed International Association of the Congo (AIC), a front for the ambitions of Belgian KingLeopold II, not supported by the Belgian government. In Equatorial Africa, while military command lay with four consecutive commandants of the (leading) station atKarema, on 22 April 1884 the International Association of the Congo became the independentCongo Free State (headed, on a personal basis and not connected to the Belgian state, by Leopold II), with plenipotentiaries styled "administrator-general" at first.
On the Greek island ofCrete, after the President of the Executive Commission of the Cretan Assembly,Ioannis Sfakianakis (b. 1848–d. 1924), had exercised executive power between 20 March and 21 December 1898, having evicting the last OttomanWāli (Ottoman governor), a Supreme Plenipotentiary Commissioner of the (Christian protecting)[clarification needed] Powers headed the official administration of theCretan State instituted on 20 March 1898 (formally under Ottoman suzerainty until union withGreece was unilaterally declared on 6 October 1908):
1 October 1906–30 September 1911:Alexandros Zaimis (b. 1855–d. 1936)
30 September 1911–30 May 1913: the post remained vacant but was not abolished until the island was officially incorporated into the Greece in December 1913.
During theRussian Civil War, Karl Lander was named Plenipotentiary of the Northern Caucasus and the Don by the Soviet government to exercise this power for prosecution of rebellious Cossacks.
InSlovakia, between 15 January 1927 and 28 June 1928Jozef Kállay [cs] (b. 1881–d. 1939) was Minister Plenipotentiary and Administrator of the Czechoslovak government.
Granting absolute power over a particular or general governmental matter to a single individual was a pervasive practice in the Nazi regime. Among the most prominent holders of this title inNazi Germany were:
Hjalmar Schacht,Generalbevollmächtigter der Kriegswirtschaft (General Plenipotentiary for War Economy) from 21 May 1935 until his resignation on 26 November 1937;
Walther Funk,Generalbevollmächtigter für die Wirtschaft (General Plenipotentiary for the Economy) from 5 February 1938 until the end of the regime in 1945;
Fritz Sauckel,Generalbevollmächtigter für den Arbeitseinsatz (General Plenipotentiary for Labor Allocation) from 21 March 1942 until the end of the regime;
Albert Speer,Generalbevollmächtigter für Rüstungsaufgaben im Vierjahresplan (General Plenipotentiary for Armament Tasks in the Four Year Plan) from 1 March 1942 until the end of the regime;
Wilhelm Frick,Generalbevollmächtigter für die Reichsverwaltung (General Plenipotentiary for the Reich Administration) from 21 May 1935 to his dismissal on 20 August 1943;
Heinrich Himmler, who succeeded Frick in this position on 24 August 1943 until dismissed from all his offices on 29 April 1945. His aide,Walter Schellenberg, held the title ofSonderbevollmächtigter (Special Plenipotentiary) to Himmler.
In theSlovak Republic (14 March 1939–4 April 1945) three consecutive German Envoys and Ministers Plenipotentiary (the old diplomatic style) formally represented the Reich in the fascistpuppet state ofJozef Tiso. These wereHans Bernard [de] from 30 June 1939 to 29 July 1940;Manfred Freiherr von Killinger from 29 July 1940 to 19 January 1941; andHanns Ludin from 19 January 1941 to 4 April 1945.
InDenmark, another country under Nazi-German occupation (9 April 1940–5 May 1945), a German protectorate was established, led by aReichsbevollmächtigter (Reich Plenipotentiary). This wasCecil von Renthe-Fink from 9 April 1940 until he was replaced on 5 November 1942 by SS-ObergruppenführerWerner Best. Best remained in this post until the German surrender in Denmark on 5 May 1945, even though on 29 August 1943 the German military commander,Hermann von Hanneken, took over more direct administration of affairs after declaring a state of military emergency.
InItaly, Nazi Germany's major EuropeanAxis ally, the government ofBenito Mussolini was overthrown on 25 July 1943. Following occupation by German forces in ade facto military takeover of Italy, Mussolini was installed on 23 September 1943 as Provisional Head of State and Prime Minister of the "Italian Social Republic", a fascistpuppet state headquartered atSalò. The German administration was headed byGeneralbevollmächtigter (General Plenipotentiary)Rudolf Rahn from 23 September 1943 to 28 April 1945. There were separate military commanders in charge of the occupation forces.
InHungary, after the regime ofMiklós Horthy began to explore contacts with the Allies in hopes of negotiating a surrender, German forces occupied the country on 19 March 1944 andEdmund Veesenmayer was namedReichsbevollmächtigter (Reich Plenipotentiary). On 15 October 1944, when Horthy tried to sign an armistice with the Soviet Union, Veesenmayer instead forced him to abdicate asregent and nameFerenc Szálasi, leader of theArrow Cross Party, as prime minister of apuppet regime. Veesenmeyer continued as the real power in Hungary through 4 April 1945, when the German forces were finally expelled by theRed Army.
When the empress ofEthiopia,Zauditu, succeeded to her throne, her relative RasTafari Makonnen was installed as hercrown prince. As he subsequently became the effective ruler of the country, his title was seen as being insufficient. As a result, Zauditu then gave him the further position of regent plenipotentiary. By virtue of it, he continued to serve as the most powerful man in Ethiopia until he was given another title, that ofking-under-the-empress. He held this new title until Zauditu died and he was proclaimed emperor in his own right with theregnal name of Haile Selassie.
It may be impractical to hold a new referendum for each step of a series of negotiated changes, and thus ministers might ask an electorate for plenipotentiary powers in advance, as occurred in theSouth African apartheid referendum, 1992. Prior to the referendum, the state presidentF. W. de Klerk had already implemented extensive reforms (e.g., removing theGroup Areas Act). His right to negotiate these reforms was questioned by other parties (e.g.,Andries Treurnicht'sConservative Party), particularly in response to the National Party'sPotchefstroom by-election defeat in February 1992. Given how heavily entrenched apartheid was in the South African legal system at the time, de Klerk needed to nullify many previous bills and pass many new ones, making a series of individual referendums impractical. Consequently, as a practical solution to the political deadlock, de Klerk held a referendum on 17 March 1992 to ask the white South African electorate to give him plenipotentiary powers.
On 18 May 2000, in the post-SovietRussian Federation the title Plenipotentiary of the President was established for the appointees of thePresident of Russia,Vladimir Putin, in each of the sevenfederal districts created on 13 May: Dalnevostochny (Far Eastern), Privolzhsky (Volga Region), Severo-Zapadny (North Western), Sibirsky (Siberian), Tsentralny (Central), Uralsky (Ural), and Yuzhny (Southern).
