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Pirates of the South China Coast (traditional Chinese:華南海盜; simplified Chinese:华南海盗; pinyin:huá nán hǎi dào) were Chinesepirates who were active in the north-western coasts of theSouth China Sea from the late 18th century to the 19th century, mainly during a 20-year period from 1790 to 1810. After 1805, the pirates of the South China Coast entered their most powerful period. Many pirates were fully trained by theTây Sơn dynasty ofVietnam.[1]
Since the late 18th century, with the increase of the population, land annexation was becoming serious day by day. Many farmers lost their land, they became brigands or pirates. Giang Bình (present-dayJiangping town [zh] inDongxing,Fangchenggang,Guangxi, China) was known as a pirate hotbed at that time.
In early times, most of Chinese pirates were fishermen. They came to Giang Bình by boats to do business, though the private maritime trade wasrestricted by Chinese government. Giang Bình located near China–Vietnam border; it belonged to Vietnam sinceLý dynasty, later, it was ceded to China after the end of theSino-French War. Giang Bình was a melting pot of Vietnamese and Chinese, it was a strategically located; however, this area was neglected by Vietnamese government.
Tây Sơn Rebellion broke out in Southern Vietnam in 1771. The rebellion soon sweptNguyễn lords andTrịnh lords out of power. Many Chinese pirates were hired and joined the civil war.Tập Đình andLý Tài became generals of Tây Sơn army.He Xiwen (Hà Hỉ Văn) became a general ofNguyễn Ánh.
Nguyễn Huệ, one of Tây Sơn leaders, crowned the Quang Trung Emperor, and defeated theinvading Chinese army in 1789. After the battle, Huệ reconciled with China, however, he waited for an opportunity to take revenge on China. He provided money to Chinese pirates. Three prominent pirates,Chen Tianbao,Mo Guanfu andZheng Qi, were ordered to hire more pirates. Since 1790, the number of Chinese pirates grew rapidly. Most of them pledged loyalty to Tây Sơn dynasty, and were fully trained. Many pirates were granted official positions. They were able to block sea routes, and harassed the coastlines of South China (Guangdong,Fujian,Zhejiang,Jiangsu) frequently. Later, they also took part in all important naval battle against Nguyễn Ánh.
In 1801, Nguyễn navy reachedPhú Xuân, a naval battle broke out in Nộn estuary (present-dayThuận An estuary). Many Chinese pirates were hired by Tây Sơn to fight against Nguyễn lord.Jean-Baptiste Chaigneau described that it was the fiercest battle in the history of Cochinchina. The battle ended with a near annihilation of both Tây Sơn navy and Chinese pirates. Three important pirates,Mo Guanfu,Liang Wengeng andFan Wencai, were captured by Nguyễn lord. EmperorCảnh Thịnh fled toThăng Long (present-day Hanoi), in there, he planned a counter-attack. Most of pirates did not supported Tây Sơn dynasty, they fled back to China secretly. Chen Tianbao fled to Guangdong and surrendered to China. Zheng Qi still pledged loyalty to Emperor Cảnh Thịnh. In 1802, he arrived at Thăng Long. He was appointed asĐại Tư Mã ("Grand Marshal") by Cảnh Thịnh. Zheng Qi get involved in the siege ofĐồng Hới, but his fleet was defeated in the mouth ofNhật Lệ River.
Tây Sơn dynasty was overthrown byNguyễn dynasty. Unlike Tây Sơn emperors, the new crownedGia Long started to suppress the pirates. In September 1802, Nguyễn army destroyed the pirates' lair in Giang Bình, captured Zheng Qi and had him executed.
After this incident, Chinese pirates had to flee toGuangdong. To compete for turf, they attacked each other. Finally, they found it would just destroy themselves. In 1805, seven pirate leaders made an agreement, a pirate alliance was founded. Seven leaders were:Zheng Yi (Red Flag Fleet),Guo Podai (Black Flag Fleet),Liang Bao (White Flag Fleet),Jin Guyang (Green Flag Fleet),Wu Shi'er (Blue Flag Fleet),Wu Zhiqing (Yellow Flag Fleet) andZheng Laotong. Not long after, Zheng Laotong surrendered to Chinese government, actually there were six gangs joined the alliance. The Red Flag Fleet led by Zheng Yi was the strongest gang in the alliance, as a matter of course, he was selected the leader of the alliance. Ladrones Islands (present-dayWanshan Archipelago),Hong Kong andLeizhou Peninsula became pirate hotbeds.
Zheng Yi died suddenly in Vietnam on 16 November 1807. His widowChing Shih, became new leaders of Red Flag Fleet. Later, Ching Shih married with adoptive sonCheung Po Tsai, Cheung succeeded the leaders and leader of the alliance. It madeGuo Podai resentful.
Now Red Flag Fleet had 30,000 men and several hundred vessels, it became a big threat toQing China andPortuguese Macau. In September 1809, Cheung was attacked by Portuguese Navy in the Tiger's Mouth. In November, Cheung was besieged by Chinese-Portuguese Navy inChek Lap Kok. Cheung asked for Guo Podai's help, however, Guo refused. In a day of fog, Cheung fled from the battlefield. He was furious at Guo and vowed revenge on him. A navy battle between Red Flag Fleet and Chinese navy broke out in December, in the battle, Cheung was ambushed by Guo's Black Flag Fleet, and defeated. Several vessels of Cheung were captured by Guo. After the battle, Guo surrendered to Chinese government, Guo became an official of Chinese navy.
Hearing the news, Cheung refused to surrender. However, more and more pirates surrendered. In January 1810, Cheung was persuaded to surrender. He delivered his fleet and weapons on 20 April. Cheung became a Chinese naval officer. On 24 May, Chinese-Vietnamese navy were dispatched to suppress the remnants of pirates. Cheung and Guo took part in the battle. The main part of pirate fleet was destroyed in the battle. It marked the end of Chinese pirates' era.
On 26 June, 1857, Chinese pirates defeated the Portuguese in theNingpo massacre.
Vincent Bernstein, The pirate queen Zheng Yi Sao:https://hiddenhistory.renecol.org/en/zheng-yi-sao-die-piratenkoenigin/, October 19, 2025, Updated: November 20, 2025
