Pirate radio in the United Kingdom has been a popular and enduringradio medium since the 1960s, despite expansions in licensedbroadcasting, and the advent of bothdigital radio andinternet radio. Although it peaked in the 1960s and again during the 1980s/1990s, it remains in existence today.[1] Having moved from transmitting fromships in the sea totower blocks acrossUK towns and cities, in 2009 the UK broadcasting regulatorOfcom estimated more than 150pirate radio stations were still operating.[2]
Pirate radio in the UK first became widespread in the mid-1960s whenpop music stations such asRadio Caroline andRadio London started to broadcast onmedium wave to the UK from offshore ships or disused sea forts. At the time, these stations were not illegal because they were broadcasting from international waters. The stations were set up by entrepreneurs and music enthusiasts to meet the growing demand forpop androck music, which was not catered for byBBC Radio services.[3]
The first British pirate radio station wasRadio Caroline, which started broadcasting from a ship off theEssex coast in 1964. By 1967, ten pirate radio stations were broadcasting to an estimated daily audience of 10-15 million. Influentialpirate radio DJs includedJohn Peel,Tony Blackburn,Kenny Everett,Johnnie Walker,Tony Prince,Emperor Rosko, andSpangles Muldoon.[4]
The format of this wave of pirate radio was influenced byRadio Luxembourg and American radio stations. Many followed atop-40 format with casual DJs, making UK pirate radio the antithesis of BBC radio at the time.[1] Spurred on by the offshore stations, land-based pirate stations took to the air on medium wave at weekends, such as Radio Free London in 1968.[5]
Radio Caroline's audience was one third the size of theBBC Light Programme in the parts of the country where it could be received, but the Light Programme's audience did not decrease, indicating that pirate radio appealed to an audience that the BBC did not serve.[6]
In reaction to the popularity of pirate radio,BBC Radio was restructured in 1967, establishingBBC Radio 1,Radio 2,Radio 3 andRadio 4. A number of DJs of the newly formed Radio 1 came from pirate stations. The UK Government also closed the international waters loophole via the 1967Marine Broadcasting Offences Act, although Radio Caroline would continue to broadcast in various forms right up to 1990.[1]
The Marine Broadcasting Offences Act officially outlawed offshore stations, but unlicensed radio continued, moving from ships and sea-based platforms tourban areas in the latter part of the 1960s (despite being already illegal under theWireless Telegraphy Act 1949).[1] During this period, home-made medium wave (and sometimesshort wave) transmitters were often constructed inside cheap, expendable biscuit tins.[7] The main method employed by most medium-wave or short-wave pirate stations during the 1970s involved programming played back on cassette recorders (often powered by a car battery), with a long wire antenna slung up between two trees.
The 1970s and 1980s saw a wave of land-based pirate radio, broadcasting mostly in larger towns and cities, transmitting from flats andtower blocks. These included community-focused local stations as well as stations emerging for the first time to specialise in particularmusic genres. One of the earliest wasRadio Jackie originally broadcasting in south west London.[8]
Soul music stations would start to appear in the 1970s. The first of these wasRadio Invicta, regarded as Europe's first soul music station first broadcasting in 1970. The station would launch the careers ofPete Tong,Gilles Peterson and a number of the shows were presented by what was then known as the "Soul Mafia" - DJs such asChris Hill andFroggy.[8][9]
Entering the 1980s, transmitters capable ofFM broadcasting were beginning to be picked up reasonably cheaply, with the ability to transmit over a forty-mile radius from a 15-storey tower. Engineers such as Pyers Easton would build them for stations such asLondon Greek Radio andKiss FM.[9]
In London, a notable moment would be the launching of Britain's first black owned music stationDread Broadcasting Corporation (DBC) in 1980. DBC playedreggae andsoca as well as otherblack music and would be instrumental to the later development ofblack community broadcasting as well as launching the career ofBBC presenterRanking Miss P.[8][9]
Soul stations would become prolific in the early-mid 1980s, with Invicta joined by Horizon Radio, and JFM in 1981. Both of these would broadcast until 1985 when they were followed bySolar Radio and Starpoint.[9]London Weekend Radio (LWR) would start life in 1983 playing contemporarypop music during the day with more specialist shows in the evenings and weekends; however, having briefly closed down, management of the station was handed to club promoter Zak Dee and in 1984, LWR rose again as a dedicatedsoul,hip hop,jazz-funk, andreggae station, launching the career ofTim Westwood.[9][10] LWR's biggest rival would arrive in the form ofKiss FM, first broadcasting in late 1985. The station was formed by George Power who had previously run another pirate station,London Greek Radio, along with DJs Gordon Mac and Tosca Jackson. By 1988, Kiss would boast a line-up of top DJs includingNorman Jay,Jazzie B (ofSoul II Soul),Colin Faver,Trevor Nelson,Judge Jules,Danny Rampling,Paul Trouble Anderson, andColdcut, playingsoul,jazz-funk,reggae,hip hop and the emerging sounds ofhouse music.[11] A 1987Evening Standard readers' poll placed Kiss in second place behindCapital Radio and ahead ofRadio 1.
Around the UK, the West Midlands and Birmingham would see a large number of stations forming including the likes ofPeoples Community Radio Link (PCRL) which started in 1985, andSunshine Radio.[8] Although launching in very late 1979, Merseyland Alternative Radio broadcast from the Wirral in the early 1980s, showcasing many bands from the Merseyside area.[12][13]
Despite being better catered for by legal radio, there was still space for stations playingalternative rock andindie music which was struggling to get mainstreamairplay. In London, stations such as RFM (Rock FM) and London Rock, and inManchesterKFM Radio would spring up to cater for those music genres during the mid-late 1980s.[9] In 1989, a London pirate radio stationQ102 would become a short-lived but hugely influential station in the breaking of early 1990sindie andBritpopbands. This station would be the roots of the later legalXFM.[14]
Pirate radio met with increasing opposition, especially from the authorities in the form of theDepartment of Trade and Industry (DTI). It had claimed since the 1970s that pirate radio caused interference to licensed broadcasters and could interfere with frequencies used by emergency services. Nonetheless, the growth of pirate radio in the 1980s was so rapid that at one point pirate radio operators outnumbered legal broadcasters and in popularity.[9]
Twice in the mid-late 1980s, theUK Government had floated plans to tackle pirate radio by offering new licenses, particularly inLondon.[15] In 1989, new licenses were advertised but stations would have to commit to closing down voluntarily and come off-air as part of bidding for them. London'sKiss FM was one of those that duly did so, yet despite strong backing and support, would lose out toJazz FM. However, further licenses were advertised subsequently and Kiss would win one on its second attempt and become the UK's first legal radio station specialising in black and dance music in September 1990.
However, even as this unfolded, a new wave of pirate radio stations emerged as theacid house scene exploded. Particularly in London, stations such as Sunrise, Fantasy, Friends FM, andCentreforce became the "seven day rave stations".[9][16]
TheBroadcasting Act 1990 led to the brief decline of UK pirate radio by encouraging diversity in radio and developing commercial radio, whilst bringing in tougher penalties for those caught in unlicensed broadcasting. The number of unlicensed broadcasters soon began to rise again, partly out of the belief that the Act had underminedcommunity radio and small broadcasters.[1] As stations such as Kiss would increasingly discover that advertising revenue and market share became as important as the music it played, new pirate stations once again sprang up to cater for underground music scenes that were developing. The biggest of these would be the risingrave music scene, with stations moving to a "rave on the air" format with back to back mixing and listener participation through 'shouts' - enabled by the growth ofpagers andmobile phones. In London, such stations included the likes of Rush,Kool FM, Pulse FM, Innocence,Don FM, and Defection.[17]
The authorities and media alleged anorganised crime anddrugs link with the rave stations, culminating in a high-profile raid inHackney in the summer of 1993 on Rush.[18] TheEvening Standard headline exclaimed "Drug gangs set up fortresses."[19] Harsher laws imposed more severe fines onDJs and businesses that advertised on stations.[20][21] The Rush raid was featured in the seminalBBC Two documentaryPirates, shown as part of theArena series in December 1993.[22]
For those ill-served by mainstream and legal radio, pirate radio filled the void, especially for theblack community. In London, stations as Galaxy Radio, Genesis, Station, and Vibes have mixedblack music withphone-ins and cultural programmes, "We are trying to bring a balance into the community - to introduce culture and history and to inform people" as one of those involved in Galaxy.[20][23] These stations still broadcast today.
Outside London the picture was similar, with notable pirate radio stations includingPCRL, Frontline, and Sting inBirmingham; The Superstation, Buzz FM and Soul Nation inManchester; Dance FM, Fantasy FM, and SCR inSheffield; Passion Radio, Ragga FM,For the People inBristol; Fresh FM inLeicester; Z100 inLiverpool, andDream FM inLeeds.[24][25]
By the mid to late 1990s, genres such ashappy hardcore,jungle/drum'n'bass andspeed/UK garage saw a new generation of pirate radio stations emerge. In London,Kool FM was joined byRinse FM, Rude,Flex FM,Eruption FM, andDream FM in championing jungle music/drum'n'bass, and the latter also happy hardcore.[26][27][28] Speed/UK garage was being pushed by stations such asLondon Underground (notably theDreem Teem), Freek FM (notablyDJ EZ), Shine FM, and Girls FM.[29]Flex FM andRinse FM (legal now) would make a transition fromjungle toUK garage during the course of the 1990s.
As pirate radio persisted into the 2000s, UK broadcasting regulatorOfcom undertook research into its popularity and published its findings in 2007. This estimated that, "there are currently around 150 illegal radio stations in the UK. At any one time, it is believed that around half of these are transmitting in London, within theM25 area".[30] It found that: "a large proportion of these are operating in London, with notable clusters in Harlesden, Stoke Newington, Southwark and Lambeth".[30]
It also commissioned research among residents of the London boroughs ofHackney,Haringey andLambeth, finding that "about 24 percent of all adults aged 14 or older living within the three London boroughs listen to pirate radio stations. The research found that 37 percent of students aged 14–24 and 41 percent of the African-Caribbean community listened to pirate radio". The development and promotion of grass-roots talent, theurban music scene and minority community groups were important for pirate radio. According to the research, pirate radio listeners and those running pirate radio stations thought that licensed broadcasters failed to cater sufficiently for the needs of the public. Pirate radio was regarded as the best place to hear new music and particularly urban music. Pirate radio stations were appreciated for their local relevance by providing information and advertisements about local community events, businesses and club nights.[30]
An operation by Ofcom to take unlicensed operators off-air in late 2005 revealed that London's airwaves were still very active, including long established stations such asKool FM,Point Blank, Bassline, Lightning FM,Y2K FM, Deja Vu, andRinse FM.[31][32][33] The latter two were instrumental in the development ofundergroundgrime anddubstep music scenes. The authorities continued to assert the risk of interference to emergency services by stations.[34]
Ofcom responded to aFreedom of Information request in July 2015, that revealed they had raided and seized almost 400 pirate radio set-ups in London in just a two-year period.[35]
Since 2010,Ofcom have promoted the take-up ofCommunity Radio, especially in areas such as London with a concentration of pirate radio stations.[36] As such, a number of former pirate radio stations have made the transition to legal broadcasting through community radio licences, such asRinse FM,Kane FM, and most recentlyFlex FM. However, some remain sceptical of the ability of the local community and pirate broadcasters to make the move to legal status.[37]
Although UK pirate radio has in the main concentrated on broadcasting music not catered for by the mainstream, there has been some overt political pirate radio. The earliest of these wasRadio Free Scotland, which hijacked the sound channels ofBBC television afterclosedown. Similarly, Voice of Nuclear Disarmament would do the same for a short period in the early 1960s in London.[38] In the 1970s,Radio Enoch, named afterEnoch Powell, was set up by people on the right wing of theConservative and Unionist Party to help re-elect a conservative government. Although Radio Enoch had vowed to return if a Labour administration was re-elected, it failed to do so afterTony Blair was elected in 1997.[8] In 1982, Our Radio was broadcasting music, anarchism, and other left wing views to London. Our Radio once evaded arrest by setting up a dummy antenna for the Home Office to find. During the1984–1985 miners' strike, Radio Arthur operated in the Nottinghamshire area.[8] More recently, Interference FM was set up by a collective to broadcast during theCarnival Against Capitalism demonstration on 18 June 1999.[39]
Political programming has been a feature of the manyblack community pirate radio stations that have grown in the UK since the 1980s. For the likes of Galaxy Radio, part of their mission is to: "de-brainwash the black community". The station combinesreggae andsoca with robust articulation of "black empowerment against a system designed our oppress our brothers and sisters" and live phone-in discussions.[23] Genesis Radio, launched in the early 1990s, follows a similar format.Duwayne Brooks,councillor and friend ofStephen Lawrence who was murdered in a racist attack in 1993, has in the past urged police to work with community stations such as Genesis in order to improve "police engagement with the community" and "run our own appeals for information after incidents".[40] Where black community stations have also been effective is to raise awareness and raise funds for local concerns, often where mainstream media has overlooked them. In 2002, Powerjam launched an appeal through one of itstalk shows to raise money to save a young girl from a rare tissue disease.[41]
The advent of theInternet has brought both opportunities and challenges for pirate radio. In the early days, the internet became another communication means in which to advertise and promote stations, with station listings, frequencies, and information starting to be posted.[42][43] Some stations decided to embrace theWeb and earlyradio streaming technologies as a means of ceasing illegal broadcasting - the most notable and pioneering of these was the former London pirate Face FM that re-invented itself as the internet station InterFACE.[44][45] For those that had no intention of coming off the air, the internet provided a way to expand their promotion and audience reach by establishing websites and enable them to begin to stream live beyond their usual broadcast area.[46][47] For the now legalRinse FM, their website not only streamed shows live but it would also provide them a platform to develop their identity and to promote their events whilst still unlicensed.[48]
By the 2010s, this landscape was changing with increasing use ofsocial media andmusic streaming services, with research byRAJAR reporting that: "Although 90% of people still listen to the radio each week, the proportion listening to FM and AM stations has fallen from 68% in 2010 to 58% in March."[49]
For some, the Internet still does not replace the need for pirate radio: "Pirate will never stop; it’s cyclical. If you push people hard enough, they’ll find a mode of expression. The internet has been pretty cool for that, but it’s not the be-all-and-end-all",[17] whilst others argue that for music like grime, pirate radio continues to be "such an essential platform for emerging voices".[50] For former pirates such asKool London,Internet radio has given them a new lease of life.[51]
TheWireless Telegraphy Act 2006 provides forOfcom to issue licences to radio broadcasters for the use of stations and wireless telegraphy apparatus. The Act sets out a number of criminal offences relating to wireless telegraphy, including the establishment or use of a wireless telegraphy station or apparatus for the purpose of making an unlicensed broadcast. The financing or participating in the day-to-day running of unlicensed broadcasting is also a criminal offence, as is the supplying of a sound recording for an unlicensed station and advertising through unlicensed stations.[30] The act allows Ofcom to take a number of actions against individuals committing these offences, including power of entry and search and seizure of equipment. It is a criminal offence to obstruct a person exercising enforcement powers on Ofcom's behalf.[30] Furthermore, theBroadcasting Act 1990 provides that anyone convicted of an unlawful broadcasting offence is disqualified from holding a broadcasting licence for five years.[30]
Anti-social behaviour orders (ASBO) have also been used in the fight against pirate radio.[52]
Drama and comedy programmes featuring UK pirate radio:
Documentaries featuring UK pirate radio:
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