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Pickling is the process ofpreserving or extending the shelf life offood by eitheranaerobicfermentation inbrine or immersion invinegar. The pickling procedure typically affects the food's texture and flavor. The resulting food is called apickle, or, if named, the name is prefaced with the word "pickled". Foods that are pickled include vegetables, fruits, mushrooms, meats, fish, dairy and eggs.
Pickling solutions are typically highly acidic, with apH of 4.6 or lower,[1] and high in salt, preventingenzymes from working and micro-organisms from multiplying.[2] Pickling can preserveperishable foods for months, or in some cases years.[3]Antimicrobial herbs and spices, such asmustard seed,garlic,cinnamon orcloves, are often added.[4] If the food contains sufficient moisture, a pickling brine may be produced simply by adding dry salt. For example,sauerkraut andKoreankimchi are produced by salting thevegetables to draw out excess water. Natural fermentation at room temperature, bylactic acid bacteria, produces the required acidity. Other pickles are made by placing vegetables in vinegar. Unlike thecanning process, pickling (which includes fermentation) does not require that the food be completelysterile. The acidity or salinity of the solution, the temperature offermentation, and the exclusion of oxygen determine which microorganisms dominate, and determine the flavor of the end product.[5]
When both salt concentration and temperature are low,Leuconostoc mesenteroides dominates, producing a mix of acids, alcohol, and aroma compounds. At higher temperaturesLactobacillus plantarum dominates, which produces primarilylactic acid. Many pickles start withLeuconostoc, and change toLactobacillus with higher acidity.[5]
Pickling with vinegar likely originated in ancientMesopotamia around 2400 BCE.[6][7] There is archaeological evidence ofcucumbers being pickled in theTigris Valley in 2030 BCE.[8] Pickling vegetables in vinegar continued developing in the Middle East region before spreading to theMaghreb,Sicily, andSpain. From Spain, it spread to theAmericas.[9] Fermented salt pickling reportedly originated in China.[6]
There is sufficient archaeological evidence that pickling was also practiced inAncient Egypt,Ancient Greece, and throughout theRoman Empire.[10] The Ancient EgyptianpharaohCleopatra was known to credit the pickles in her diet for her good health and beauty.[11] Roman emperors were also known to make pickles a part of their troops' diets, with the belief it would make them stronger and more fit for battle.[12]
Pickling was used as a way to preserve food for out-of-season use and for long journeys, especially by sea.Salt pork andsalt beef were commonstaples for sailors before the days of steam engines. Although the process was invented to preserve foods, pickles are also made and eaten because people enjoy the resulting flavors. Pickling may also improve the nutritional value of food by introducingB vitamins produced by bacteria.[13]
The English term "pickle" first appears around 1400 CE. It originates from theMiddle Englishpikel, a spicy sauce served with meat or fish, borrowed fromMiddle Dutch orMiddle Low Germanpekel ("brine") but later referred to preserving in brine or vinegar.[9][14]
South Asia has a large variety of pickles (known asachar (अचार, اچار) in Nepali, Assamese, Bengali, Hindi (अचार), Punjabi, Gujarati, Urdu (اچار)uppinakaayi in Kannada,lonacha (लोणचं) in Marathi,uppilittathu orachar inMalayalam,oorukai inTamil,pacchadi (పచ్చడి) orooragaya (ఊరగాయ) inTelugu, which are mainly made from varieties of mango,lemon,lime, gongura (a sour leafy shrub),tamarind, Indian gooseberry (amla), and chilli. Vegetables such as eggplant, carrots, cauliflower, tomato, bitter gourd, green tamarind, ginger, garlic, onion, and citron are also occasionally used. These fruits and vegetables are mixed with ingredients such as salt, spices, and vegetable oils. The pickling process is completed by placing filled jars in the sun to mature. The sun's heat destroys moulds and microbes which could spoil the pickles.[2][9]
InPakistan, pickles are known locally asachaar (inUrdu اچار) and come in a variety of flavours. A popular item is the traditional mixedHyderabadi pickle, prepared from an assortment of fruits (most notably mangoes) and vegetables blended with selected spices. Although the origin of the word is ambiguous, the word āchār is widely considered to be ofPersian origin. Āchār in Persian is defined as 'powdered or salted meats, pickles, or fruits, preserved in salt, vinegar, honey, sugar or syrup.'[15]
InSri Lanka, a date and shallot pickle,achcharu, is traditionally prepared from carrots, chilli powder, shallots and ground dates mixed with garlic, crushed fresh ginger, green chilis, mustard seeds and vinegar, and left to sit in a clay pot.[16]
Indian pickles are mostly prepared in three ways: salt/brine, oil, and vinegar, with mango pickle being most popular among all.[17][18]
Singapore,Indonesian andMalaysian pickles, calledacar are typically made out of cucumber, carrot, bird's eye chilies, and shallots, these items being seasoned with vinegar, sugar and salt. Fruits, such as papaya and pineapple, are also sometimes pickled. InMalaysia, it's common for pickles to be made in brine (usually made with sugar or starchy water to provide the best environment for fermentation). These pickles, known locally asjeruk, are made from unripe mango, papaya, pineapple and lime. Eaten with a meal, or on its own as a snack,jeruk is especially popular among children.[19]
In thePhilippines,pickling is a common method of preserving food, with many commonly eaten foods pickled, traditionally done using large earthen jars. The process is known asburo orbinuro. Pickling was a common method of preserving a large variety of foods such as fish throughout the archipelago before the advent of refrigeration, but its popularity is now confined to vegetables and fruits.Atchara is primarily made out of julienned green papaya, carrots, and shallots, seasoned with cloves of garlic and vinegar; but could include ginger, bell peppers,white radishes, cucumbers or bamboo shoots. Pickled unripe mangoes orburong mangga, unripe tomatoes,guavas,jicama, bitter gourd and other fruit and vegetables still retain their appeal.Siling labuyo, sometimes with garlic and red onions, is also pickled in bottled vinegar and is a staplecondiment inFilipino cuisine.[20]
InVietnamese cuisine, vegetable pickles are calleddưa muối ("salted vegetables") ordưa chua ("sour vegetables").Dưa chua ordưa góp is made from a variety of fruits and vegetables, includingcà pháo,eggplant,Napa cabbage,kohlrabi,carrots, radishes,papaya,cauliflower, andsung.Dưa chua made from carrots and radishes are commonly added tobánh mì sandwiches.Dưa cải muối is made by pressing and sun-drying vegetables such ascải xậy andgai choy.Nhút mít is a specialty ofNghệ An andHã Tĩnh provinces made fromjackfruit.[20]
InBurma, tea leaves are pickled to producelahpet, which has strong social and cultural importance.[20]Lahpet thoke (tea leaf salad) is a popular dish made with fermented tea leaves, garlic, peanuts, sesame seeds, dried shrimp, and other seasonings. It is often served as a delicacy at social gatherings and plays a role in traditional ceremonies. The tradition of pickling tea leaves dates back centuries and is unique to Burmese cuisine.[21]
A wide variety of foods are pickled throughout East Asia. The pickles are often sweet, salty, and/or spicy and preserved in sweetened solutions or oil.[22]
China is home to first documented origins of fermented salt pickles, based upon a poem written around 7th century BCE.[19] The practice of pickling then spread across Asia, consisting of a large variety of vegetables, includingradish,baicai (Chinese cabbage, notablysuan cai,pao cai, andTianjin preserved vegetable),zha cai,chili pepper (e.g.duo jiao), andcucumbers, among many others.[19]
Japanesetsukemono (pickled foods) are made from a variety of techniques, the oldest and easiest beingShio-zuke which translates tosalt pickles. This method tends to be the most widely used, and a version of this method calledichiyazuke (overnight pickle) which as the name indiates is a sped-up pickling process (using salt) that can be completed overnight and ready to serve the next day.[23]Umeboshi, another one of the salt-preservedtsukemono, is known as the Japanese plum but taste-wise is closer in comparison to an apricot. In Japanese, 'boshi' stems off the root verb meaning "to dry" because after the Umeboshi is pickled, it dries out in sunlight for 3-5 days (although some recipes recommend putting the fruit back into brine at night, to prevent molding).[23]
InKorea one of the most notable pickled foods iskimchi, which is a Korean side dish made of pickled vegetables. Kimchi is primarily consists ofnapa cabbage (baechu ) but is also commonly mixed withradish, green onions, garlic, ginger and red chili powder.[24]
InIran,Turkey,Arab countries, theBalkans, and theSouth Caucasus, pickles (calledtorshi inPersian,turşu inTurkish language andmekhallel inArabic) are a pickled mix of cucumbers, and turnips, onions, carrots, olives or other regional vegetables. The Persian wordtorshi comes from the root word 'torsh' which translates in english to 'sour.'[19]
Sauerkraut, as well as cabbage pickled in vinegar, with carrot and other vegetables is commonly consumed as akosher dish inIsrael and is consideredpareve, meaning that it contains no meat ordairy so it can be consumed with either.[25]
InHungary, the main meal(lunch) usually includes some kind of pickles(savanyúság), but pickles are also commonly consumed at other times of the day. The most commonly consumed pickles aresauerkraut(savanyú káposzta),pickled cucumbers andpeppers, andcsalamádé, but tomatoes, carrots, beetroot, baby corn, onions, garlic, certain squashes and melons, and a few fruits such as plums and apples are used to make pickles too. Stuffed pickles are specialties, usually made of peppers or melons pickled after being stuffed with a cabbage filling. Pickled plum stuffed with garlic is a unique Hungarian type of pickle just likecsalamádé and leavened cucumber(kovászos uborka).Csalamádé is a type ofmixed pickle made of cabbage, cucumber, paprika, onion, carrot, tomatoes, and bay leaf mixed up with vinegar as the fermenting agent. Leavened cucumber, unlike other types of pickled cucumbers that are around all year long, is rather aseasonal pickle produced in the summer. Cucumbers, spices, herbs, and slices of bread are put in a glass jar with salt water and kept in direct sunlight for a few days. The yeast from the bread, along with other pickling agents and spices fermented under the hot sun, give the cucumbers a unique flavor, texture, and slight carbonation. Its juice can be used instead of carbonated water to make a special type ofspritzer('Újházy fröccs'). It is common for Hungarian households to produce their own pickles. Different regions or towns have their special recipes unique to them. Among them all, the Vecsési sauerkraut(Vecsési savanyú káposzta) is the most famous.[26][27]
Romanian pickles (murături) are made out ofbeetroot,cucumbers, green tomatoes (gogonele),carrots,cabbage,garlic,sauerkraut,bell peppers,melons,mushrooms,turnips,celery andcauliflower. Meat, likepork, can also be preserved in salt andlard.[28]
Polish cuisine is centered around pickled foods. Pickled gherkins are enjoyed in a multitude of ways; a snack, a sidedish, a 'chaser' for vodka, and also often used to pickled-gherkin soup.[29]
Czech cuisine incorporates many pickled fruits and vegetables as a way to preserve produce that in their climate are mostly seasonal. A unique aspect of Czech cuisine is the dish 'beer cheese' which is cheese that is pickled in beer.[30]
InSlovak tradition, pickling practices are quite similar to ones used in the Czech Republic. June and July is prime pickling season in Slovakia, where most people are bottling up their fruits and vegetables to preserve for enjoyment in the wintertime.[31]
North Caucasian,Russian,Ukrainian andBelarusian pickled items include beets, mushrooms, tomatoes, sauerkraut, cucumbers,ramsons,garlic, eggplant (which is typically stuffed with julienned carrots), custardsquash, andwatermelon. Garden produce is commonly pickled using salt,dill,blackcurrant leaves,bay leaves and garlic and is stored in a cool, dark place. The leftover brine (calledrassol (рассол) inRussian) has a number of culinary uses in these countries, especially for cooking traditional soups, such asshchi,rassolnik, andsolyanka.Rassol, especially cucumber orsauerkraut rassol, is also a favorite traditional remedy against morninghangover.[32]
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AnItalian pickled vegetable dish isgiardiniera, which comes from the root word "giardino" and translates in english to garden. Typical inclusions to giardiniera are carrots, celery, peppers, onions, cauliflower and whatever other vegetables were found in the garden.[33]
In theMiddle East andBalkan Region, pickled vegetables (most commonly used are peppers, carrots and cauliflower) are known regionally asturshi,tursija, torshi orturshu.[34] This dish can be enjoyed on its own, in sandwiches or salads, and as a side to popular dishes like Lahm Bi Ajeen.[35] InGreece, pickles, calledτουρσί (pronounced toursi) are made out of carrots, celery,eggplants stuffed with diced carrots, cauliflower,tomatoes, andpeppers.[36]
InSpain, pickles, known as "encurtidos", are mainly made with olives, cucumbers, onions and green peppers ("guindillas" or "piparras"). "Banderillas" are small pieces of pickled cucumber and green pepper, along with olives and anchovies, mounted into toothpicks, and are very popular asTapas.[37]
InBritain,pickled onions andpickled eggs are often sold inpubs andfish and chip shops. Pickledbeetroot,walnuts, andgherkins, and condiments such asBranston Pickle andpiccalilli are typically eaten as an accompaniment topork pies and cold meats, sandwiches or aploughman's lunch. Other popular pickles in the UK are pickledmussels,cockles,red cabbage, mangochutney,sauerkraut, andolives.Rollmops are also quite widely available under a range of names from various producers both within and out of the UK.[38]
Pickled fish, specificallyherring andsalmon, are popular inScandinavia. Pickled cucumbers, beets and radishes are used ascondiments for several traditional dishes. Pickled capers are also common in Scandinavian cuisine.[39]
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In theUnited States andCanada,pickled cucumbers (most often referred to simply as "pickles"), olives, andsauerkraut are most commonly seen, although pickles common in other nations are also very widely available. In Canada and the US, there may be a distinction made between gherkins (usually smaller), and pickles (larger pickled cucumbers).
Sweet pickles made with fruit are more common in thecuisine of the American South. The pickling "syrup" is made with vinegar, brown sugar, and whole spices such as cinnamon sticks, allspice and cloves. Fruit pickles can be made with an assortment of fruits including watermelon, cantaloupe,Concord grapes and peaches.[40]
Canadian pickling is similar to that of Britain. Through the winter, pickling is an important method of food preservation. Pickled cucumbers, onions, and eggs are common. Pickled egg and pickled sausage make popular pub snacks in much of English Canada.Chow-chow is a tart vegetable mix popular in the Maritime Provinces and theSouthern United States, similar topiccalilli. Pickled fish is commonly seen, as in Scotland, andkippers may be seen for breakfast, as well as plentiful smoked salmon. Meat is often also pickled or preserved in different brines throughout the winter, most prominently in the harsh climate of Newfoundland.
Pickled eggs are common in many regions of the United States.Pickled herring is available in theUpper Midwest.Giardiniera, a mixture of pickled peppers, celery and olives, is a popular condiment inChicago and other Midwestern cities with large Italian-American populations, and is often consumed withItalian beef sandwiches.
Pennsylvania Dutch Country has a strong tradition of pickled foods, including chow-chow andred beet eggs. In the Southern United States, pickledokra andwatermelon rind are popular, as are deep-fried pickles andpickled pig's feet, pickled chicken eggs, pickled quail eggs, pickled garden vegetables and pickled sausage.[41][42]
Various pickled vegetables, fish, or eggs may make a side dish to a Canadian lunch or dinner. Popular pickles in the Pacific Northwest include pickled asparagus and green beans. Pickled fruits like blueberries and early green strawberries are paired with meat dishes in restaurants.
Pickles were part ofThanksgiving dinner traditions as early as 1827. The first mention of pickles at Thanksgiving comes fromSarah Josepha Hale's novelNorthwood. (Hale is best known for her successful campaign to have Thanksgiving recognized as a national holiday in the United States.) Pickled peaches, coleslaw and other mixed pickles continue to be served alongside cranberry sauce at Thanksgiving dinner in present times.[43]
InMexico,chili peppers, particularly of theJalapeño andserrano varieties, are pickled with vegetables such as, onions, carrots and herbs form common condiments. Pickled peppers are canned and sold in supermarkets under the name "en escabeche."[44]
In theMesoamerican region, pickling is known asencurtido or "curtido" for short. The pickles or "curtidos" as known in Latin America are served cold, as an appetizer, as a side dish or as a tapas dish in Spain. In several Central American countries it is prepared with cabbage, onions, carrots, lemon, vinegar, oregano, and salt. In Mexico, "curtido" consists of carrots, onions, and jalapeño peppers and used to accompany meals common intaquerías and restaurants.[45]
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In traditional pickling, fruit or vegetables are submerged in brine (20–40 grams/L of salt (3.2–6.4 oz/imp gal or 2.7–5.3 oz/US gal)), or shredded and salted as insauerkraut preparation, and held underwater by flat stones layered on top.[46] Alternatively, a lid with an airtrap or a tight lid may be used if the lid is able to release pressure which may result fromcarbon dioxide buildup.[47] Mold or (white) kahmyeast may form on the surface; kahm yeast is mostly harmless but can impart an off taste and may be removed without affecting the pickling process.[48]
In chemical pickling, the fruits or vegetables to be pickled are placed in a sterilized jar along with brine, vinegar, or both, as well as spices, and are then allowed to mature until the desired taste is obtained.
The food can be pre-soaked in brine before transferring to vinegar. This reduces the water content of the food, which would otherwise dilute the vinegar. This method is particularly useful for fruit and vegetables with a high natural water content.
In commercial pickling, a preservative such assodium benzoate orEDTA may also be added to enhance shelf life. In fermentation pickling, the food itself produces the preservation agent, typically by a process involvingLactobacillus bacteria that produce lactic acid as the preservative agent.
Alum, short for aluminum sulfate, is used in pickling to promote crisp texture and is approved, though not recommended, as a food additive by the United StatesFood and Drug Administration.[49][50] Another common crisping agent iscalcium chloride, which evolved from the practice of usingpickling lime.[51] See alsofirming agent.
"Refrigerator pickles" are unfermented pickles made bymarinating fruit or vegetables in a seasoned vinegar solution. They must be stored underrefrigeration or undergo canning to achieve long-term storage.[52]
JapaneseTsukemono use a variety of pickling ingredients depending on theirtype, and are produced by combining these ingredients with the vegetables to be preserved and putting the mixture under pressure.
In 1993, theWorld Health Organization listed traditional Asian pickled vegetables aspossiblecarcinogens,[53] and theBritish Journal of Cancer released an online 2009meta-analysis of research on pickles as increasing the risks ofesophageal cancer. The report, citing limited data in a statistical meta analysis, indicates a potential two-fold increased risk of esophageal cancer associated with Asian pickled vegetable consumption. Results from the research are described as having "high heterogeneity" and the study said that further well-designed prospective studies were warranted.[54] However, their results stated "The majority of subgroup analyses showed a statistically significant association between consuming pickled vegetables and Oesophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma".[54]
Consuming pickled vegetables is also associated with a 28% increase in the risk ofstomach cancer.[55]
The 2009 meta-analysis reported heavy infestation of pickled vegetables withfungi. Some common fungi can facilitate the formation ofN-nitroso compounds, which are strong esophageal carcinogens in several animal models.[56]Roussin red methyl ester,[57] a non-alkylating nitroso compound with tumour-promoting effect in vitro, was identified in pickles fromLinzhou, Henan (formerly Linxian) in much higher concentrations than in samples from low-incidence areas.Fumonisinmycotoxins have been shown to cause liver and kidneytumours in rodents.[54]
A 2017 study inChinese Journal of Cancer[58] has linked salted vegetables (pickled mustard green [zh] common inChinese cuisine) to a fourfold increase innasopharynx cancer. The researchers believe possible mechanisms include production ofnitrosamines (a type of N-nitroso compound) by fermentation and activation ofEpstein–Barr virus by fermentation products.[59][60]
Historically, pickling caused health concerns for reasons associated with copper salts, as explained in the mid-19th centuryThe English and Australian Cookery Book: "The evidence of the Lancet commissioner (Dr. Hassall) and Mr. Blackwell (of the eminent firm of Crosse and Blackwell) went to prove that the pickles sold in the shops are nearly always artificially coloured, and are thus rendered highly unwholesome, if not actually poisonous."
Reduction of suspected carcinogens from pickled products is a subject of active research.
While some pickled vegetables have potential health risks, certain pickled foods such asolives retain beneficial nutrients. Pickled olives contain monounsaturated fats,antioxidants, and essential minerals, though theirsodium content can be high due to the brining process.[64]
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