Aphotograph (also known as aphoto, or more generically referred to as animage orpicture) is animage created bylight falling on aphotosensitive surface, usuallyphotographic film or an electronicimage sensor. The process and practice of creating such images is calledphotography.
Most photographs are now created using asmartphone orcamera, which uses alens to focus the scene'svisible wavelengths of light into a reproduction of what thehuman eye would see.
The wordphotograph was coined in 1839 bySir John Herschel and is based on theGreek φῶς (phos), meaning "light", and γραφή (graphê), meaning "drawing, writing", together meaning "drawing with light".[1]
The first permanent photograph, a contact-exposed copy of an engraving, was made in 1822 using thebitumen-based "heliography" process developed byNicéphore Niépce. The first photographs of a real-world scene, made using acamera obscura, followed a few years later at Le Gras, France, in 1826, but Niépce's process was not sensitive enough to be practical for that application: a cameraexposure lasting for hours or days was required.[2] In 1829, Niépce entered into a partnership withLouis Daguerre, and the two collaborated to work out a similar, but more sensitive, and otherwise improved process.
After Niépce's death in 1833, Daguerre concentrated onsilver halide-based alternatives. He exposed a silver-plated copper sheet to iodine vapor, creating a layer of light-sensitivesilver iodide; exposed it in the camera for a few minutes; developed the resulting invisiblelatent image to visibility with mercury fumes; then bathed the plate in a hot salt solution to remove the remaining silver iodide, making the results light-fast. He named this first practical process for making photographs with a camera, thedaguerreotype, after himself. Its existence was announced to the world on 7 January 1839, but working details were not made public until 19 August that year. Other inventors soon made drastic improvements that reduced the required amount of exposure time from a few minutes to just a few seconds, making portrait photography truly practical and widely popular during this time.
The daguerreotype had shortcomings, notably the fragility of the mirror-like image surface and the particular viewing conditions required to see the image properly. Each was a unique, opaque positive that could only be duplicated by copying it with a camera. Inventors set about working out improved processes that would be more practical. By the end of the 1850s, the daguerreotype had been replaced by the less expensive and more easily viewedambrotype andtintype, which made use of the recently introducedcollodion process. Glass plate collodion negatives used to make prints onalbumen paper soon became the preferred photographic method and held that position for many years, even after the introduction of the more convenientgelatin process in 1871. Refinements of the gelatin process have remained the primaryblack-and-white photographic process to this day, differing primarily in the sensitivity of theemulsion and the support material used, which was originally glass, then a variety offlexible plastic films, along with various types of paper for the final prints.
Color photography is almost as old asblack-and-white, with early experiments includingJohn Herschel'sAnthotype prints in 1842, the pioneering work ofLouis Ducos du Hauron in the 1860s, and theLippmann process unveiled in 1891, but for many years color photography remained little more than a laboratory curiosity. It first became a widespread commercial reality with the introduction ofAutochrome plates in 1907, but the plates were very expensive and not suitable for casual snapshot-taking with hand-held cameras. The mid-1930s saw the introduction ofKodachrome andAgfacolor Neu, the first easy-to-use color films of the modern multi-layerchromogenic type. These early processes produced transparencies for use inslide projectors and viewing devices, but color prints became increasingly popular after the introduction of chromogenic color print paper in the 1940s. The needs of the motion picture industry generated a number of special processes and systems, perhaps the best-known being the now-obsolete three-stripTechnicolor process.
Non-digital photographs are produced with a two-step chemical process. In the two-step process, the light-sensitive film captures anegative image (colors and lights/darks are inverted). To produce apositive image, the negative is most commonly transferred ('printed') ontophotographic paper. Printing the negative onto transparent film stock is used to manufacture motion picture films.
Alternatively, the film is processed to invert thenegative image, yielding positivetransparency. Such positive images are usually mounted in frames, called slides. Before recent advances in digital photography, transparencies were widely used by professionals because of their sharpness and accuracy of color rendition. Most photographs published in magazines were taken on color transparency film.
Originally, all photographs were monochromatic or hand-painted in color. Although methods for developing color photos were available as early as 1861, they did not become widely available until the 1940s or 1950s, and even so, until the 1960s, most photographs were taken in black and white. Since then,color photography has dominated popular photography, although black-and-white is still used, being easier to develop than color.
Panoramic format images can be taken with cameras like theHasselblad Xpan on standard film. Since the 1990s, panoramic photos have been available on theAdvanced Photo System (APS) film. APS was developed by several of the major film manufacturers to provide a film with different formats and computerized options available, though APS panoramas were created using a mask in panorama-capable cameras, far less desirable than a true panoramic camera, which achieves its effect through a wider film format. APS has become less popular and has been discontinued.
The advent of themicrocomputer anddigital photography has led to the rise ofdigital prints. These prints are created from storedgraphic formats such asJPEG,TIFF, andRAW. The types of printers used includeinkjet printers,dye-sublimation printers,laser printers, andthermal printers. Inkjet prints are sometimes given the coined name "Giclée".
TheWeb has been a popular medium for storing and sharing photos ever since the first photograph was published on the web byTim Berners-Lee in 1992 (an image of theCERN house bandLes Horribles Cernettes). Today, popular sites such asFlickr,PhotoBucket, and500px are used by millions of people to share their pictures.
The first "selfie", or self-portrait, was taken by Robert Cornelious back in 1839.[4] "Selfies" have become one of the most common photographs, especially among female young adults. Social media has become such a cultural advancement because of photography. People thrive off of the selfies of their favorite celebrities, many receive millions of likes on social media because of one simple selfie.
Ideal photograph storage involves placing each photo in an individual folder constructed from buffered, oracid-free paper.[5] Buffered paper folders are especially recommended in cases when a photograph was previously mounted onto poor quality material or using anadhesive that will lead to even moreacid creation.[6] Store photographs measuring 8x10 inches or smaller vertically along the longer edge of the photo in the buffered paper folder, within a larger archival box, and label each folder with relevant information to identify it. The rigid nature of the folder protects the photo from slumping or creasing, as long as the box is not packed too tightly or under filled. Folder larger photos orbrittle photos stacked flat within archival boxes with other materials of comparable size.[7]
The most stable of plastics used in photo preservation,polyester, does not generate any harmful chemical elements, nor does it have any capability to absorbacids generated by the photograph itself. Polyester sleeves and encapsulation have been praised for their ability to protect the photograph fromhumidity and environmentalpollution, slowing the reaction between the item and the atmosphere. This is true, however the polyester just as frequently traps these elements next to the material it is intended to protect. This is especially risky in a storage environment that experiences drastic fluctuations in humidity or temperature, leading to ferrotyping, or sticking of the photograph to the plastic.[5] Photographs sleeved or encapsulated in polyester cannot be stored vertically in boxes because they will slide down next to each other within the box, bending and folding, nor can thearchivist write directly onto the polyester to identify the photograph. Therefore, it is necessary to either stack polyester protected photographs horizontally within a box, or bind them in a three ring binder. Stacking the photos horizontally within a flat box will greatly reduce ease of access, and binders leave three sides of the photo exposed to the effects of light[8] and do not support the photograph evenly on both sides, leading to slumping and bending within the binder. The plastic used for enclosures has been manufactured to be as frictionless as possible to prevent scratching photos during insertion to the sleeves. Unfortunately, the slippery nature of the enclosure generates a build-up ofstatic electricity, which attractsdust and lint particles. The static can attract the dust to the inside of the sleeve, as well, where it can scratch the photograph.[5] Likewise, these components that aid in insertion of the photo, referred to as slip agents, can break down and transfer from the plastic to the photograph, where they deposit as an oily film, attracting further lint and dust. At this time, there is no test to evaluate the long-term effects of these components on photographs. In addition, the plastic sleeves can develop kinks or creases in the surface, which will scratch away at theemulsion during handling.[8]
It is best to leave photographs lying flat on the table when viewing them. Do not pick it up from a corner, or even from two sides and hold it at eye level. Every time the photograph bends, even a little, this can break down theemulsion.[9] The very nature of enclosing a photograph in plastic encourages users to pick it up; users tend to handle plastic enclosed photographs less gently than non-enclosed photographs, simply because they feel the plastic enclosure makes the photo impervious to all mishandling. As long as a photo is in its folder, there is no need to touch it; simply remove the folder from the box, lay it flat on the table, and open the folder. If for some reason the researchers orarchivists do need to handle the actual photo, perhaps to examine theverso for writing, they can use gloves if there appears to be a risk from oils or dirt on the hands.
Becausedaguerreotypes were rendered on a mirrored surface, manyspiritualists also became practitioners of the new art form. Spiritualists would claim that the human image on the mirrored surface was akin to looking into one's soul. The spiritualists also believed that it would open their souls and let demons in. Among some Muslims, it ismakruh (disliked) to performsalah (worship) in a place decorated with photographs.[10] Photography and darkroom anomalies and artifacts sometimes lead viewers to believe that spirits or demons have been captured in photos. Some have made a career out of taking pictures of "ghosts" or "spirits".[11] There are many instances where people believe photos will bring bad luck either to the person taking the picture or people captured in the photo. For instance, a photograph taken of a pregnant woman will bring bad luck to the baby in the womb and photos taken of dead people will ensure that person is not successful in the afterlife.[12]
The production or distribution of certain types of photograph has been forbidden under modern laws, such as those of government buildings,[13] highly classified regions,[14] private property,copyrighted works,[15][16] children'sgenitalia,[17] child pornography and less commonlypornography overall.[18] These laws vary greatly between jurisdictions.
In some public property owned by government, such as law courts,[19] government buildings, libraries, civic centres[20][21] and some of the museums in Hong Kong, photography is not allowed without permission from the government. It is illegal to equip or take photographs and recording in a place of public entertainment, such as cinemas and indoor theaters.[22][23] In Hungary, from 15 March 2014 when the long-awaited Civil Code was published, the law re-stated what had been normal practice, namely, that a person had the right to refuse being photographed. However,implied consent exists: it is not illegal to photograph a person who does not actively object.[24][25]
InSouth Africa photographing people in public is legal.[26] Reproducing and selling photographs of people is legal for editorial and limited fair use commercial purposes. There exists no case law to define what the limits on commercial use are. In the United Kingdom there are no laws forbidding photography of private property from a public place.[27] Persistent and aggressive photography of a single individual may come under the legal definition ofharassment.[28][29][30][31] Aright to privacy came into existence in UK law as a consequence of the incorporation of theEuropean Convention on Human Rights into domestic law through theHuman Rights Act 1998. This can result in restrictions on the publication of photography.[32][33]
from Helmut Gernsheim's article, "The 150th Anniversary of Photography," in History of Photography Vol. I, No. 1, January 1977: ... In 1822, Niépce coated a glass plate ... The sunlight passing through ... This first permanent example ... was destroyed ... some years later.
Media related toPhotographs at Wikimedia Commons
The dictionary definition ofphotograph at Wiktionary
