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Philosophical theology is both a branch and form oftheology in whichphilosophical methods are used in developing or analyzing theological concepts. It therefore includesnatural theology as well as philosophical treatments oforthodox andheterodox theology. Philosophical theology is also closely related to thephilosophy of religion.
Mortimer J. Adler distinguishes philosophical theology fromnatural theology. While the former is, according to him, theology done by non-Christian philosophers, the latter is done by those who are already Christians and are actually trying to find rational proofs for their faith.[1] Adler thinks that the term "natural theology" is a misnomer and is actually apologetics, and cites as an example Thomas Aquinas'Summa Contra Gentiles, addressed to the Jews and Moors in Spain. Though written as if it were philosophical theology, was in fact, apologetics and not philosophical theology, as it was written by a Christian and not by a pagan. In Adler's view, few books on natural theology are sound works of philosophical theology because they are not written by pagans.[2] An example of philosophical theology, according to Adler, is Aristotle's theology as found in hisMetaphysics.[3]
Contrary to Adler's view, Charles Taliaferro and Chad Meister think that doing philosophical theology may not be restricted by whether the doer is an insider to faith or not, for anyone doing philosophical theology only tries to consider whether a theological doctrine can make philosophical sense or not.[4] But, as Adler points it out, a pagan doing philosophical theology and coming to a theological conclusion has a different route than an insider using philosophy to examine or seek to understand his faith.[5]
The relationship between theology and philosophy has been long-debated and discussed within theChristian tradition.Tertullian, an influential early Christian theologian and apologist, believed that philosophy has little to do with theology, arguing that the use of philosophy often corrupted theology, leading to unorthodox beliefs that were not grounded in the early Christian tradition. He famously asked the question 'What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?'. (Athens symbolized the philosophical approach because of its role as a leading center ofHellenistic philosophy, whileJerusalem represented Christianity because of its role as an important location and intellectual centre in theearly church.)[1]
Other leaders, however, saw a closer relationship between philosophy and theology.Justin Martyr looked at people likeHeraclitus andSocrates as possessing the divine light of revelation and believed them to be true philosophers. Justin saw Christianity as the True Philosophy and argued for Christianity using philosophical methods and terminology.St. Augustine, who became one of the most influential theologians in history and whose works laid the foundation for much of Western philosophy (as well as much of Western theology), espoused a more middle-of-the-road, moderate approach. He argued that philosophy and theology often complement each other while at the same time cautioning that philosophy should not always be used in theological discourse. Instead, he argued, one should make sure that a philosophical approach toward a particular issue was grounded in prior Christian commitments.[6]
The disciplines of Philosophy and Theology have often been connected, with theologians and philosophers interacting and debating similar and sometimes overlapping issues. Philosophy played a key role in the formation of Western theology.Thomas Aquinas, one of the most influential philosophers and theologians in history, for instance, borrowed much of his concepts fromAristotle.Scholasticism dominated both the philosophical and theological landscape in theMiddle Ages, with theologians such as Aquinas,Anselm of Canterbury,Duns Scotus,William of Ockham,Peter Abelard,Bonaventure, andAlbertus Magnus playing key roles in both philosophy and theology.[6]
In modern times,Anthony Thiselton has shown in hisFusion of Horizons the role that philosophy has played in the interpretation of scriptures, i.e., in the field ofhermeneutics. Philosophy provides interpretive grids for the apprehension of revelation. There are others, likeSadhu Sundar Singh, for instance, who believe that it is the illumination of theHoly Spirit that gives the truest meaning of revelation. Yet, one can't fail to see that cultural grids play an important role in the development of theology.[7]
Many contemporary philosophers continue to write and argue from a Christian perspective, with Christian concepts undergirding their philosophical work. In recent decades, some of the most well-known philosophers who have written from a Christian perspective areAlvin Plantinga,Alasdair MacIntyre,William Lane Craig,Jean-Luc Marion,Paul Tillich,Charles Taylor,Richard Swinburne, andJames K. A. Smith.
During the 18th, 19th centuries, and 20th centuries, many theologians reacted against themodernist,Enlightenment, andpositivist attacks onChristian theology. Someexistentialistic orneo-orthodoxProtestant intellectuals like theSwiss Reformed theologianKarl Barth turned away from philosophy (calledfideism) and argued that faith should be based strictly upon divine revelation. A popular approach in some circles is the approach ofReformed epistemologists, such asAlvin Plantinga andNicholas Wolterstorff, who assert that belief in God might befoundational (or, properly'basic') and warranted without the need for logical or evidential justification, like belief inother minds or theexternal world, rather than inferentially derived from other beliefs. It can, however, be subject todefeaters, rationally requiring that one give up the belief. Many other philosophers and theologians, however, disagree with this perspective and provide alternative views. Many other theologians have turned tocontinental philosophy,analytic philosophy, andpostmodern philosophy in attempts to analyze and reframe Christian theology in contemporary contexts.
While philosophical theology can denote an approach to theology which is philosophical in nature, it can also denote a specific area of theology in which philosophical methods and terminology are used to analyze theological concepts. One task of philosophical theologians is to attempt to reconcile certain aspects of Christian doctrine with developments in philosophy. One question concerns how to prove the existence and nature of God. The knowledge of God is dealt with in theepistemology ofreligion, usually a subset ofphilosophy of religion.[8]
There are many different perspectives with philosophical theology on such questions. In modern timesprocess theology,open theism, andChristian panentheism have tried to look at God as the Being who is not only the Source and Ground of all beings but also influenced by the people and processes of the world which he created and which he belongs—rejecting or at least amending the classical medieval doctrine ofimpassibility.
Christology raises a number of philosophical questions, such as how the divine can incarnate as a human, how the eternal can enter the temporal, and how the divine and the human can be united in one yet remain distinct. Such questions led to earlierheresies likeArianism,Sabellianism,Docetism, etc. Often, one'sepistemic theory can play an important role in how one answers such questions. There is, for instance, sometimes a clash between those who want to emphasize therational foundation for theology and those who want to emphasize theempirical foundation for theology. There has also been a contrast made between Christology from above and Christology from below. The former emphasizes the divine side ofChrist; the latter, the human side. The human side obviously tends to look at it more empirically. The Scriptures call the Incarnation a mystery of godliness.[9] It baffles human imagination, leading many to call it a divine mystery. Yet, philosophical theologians argue that it is also important to find a philosophical ground for asserting both the divinity and humanity of Christ.
Other theologians, however, likeRudolph Bultmann, read the New Testament documents in mythic terms which needed to be stripped back so that the essential truths could be laid bare, a hermeneutical approach they calleddemythologization. This included a clear distinction between the (in their view, unimportant) Jesus of history and the (all-important) Christ of faith (see also theQuest for the Historical Jesus).