ThePhilippine Revolution (Filipino:Himagsikang Pilipino orRebolusyong Pilipino;Spanish:Revolución Filipina orGuerra Tagala)[8] was awar of independence waged by the revolutionary organizationKatipunan against theSpanish Empire from 1896 to 1898. It was the culmination of the 333-yearcolonial rule of Spain in the archipelago. ThePhilippines was one of the last major colonies of the Spanish Empire, which had already suffereda massive decline in the 1820s.Cuba rebelled in 1895, and in 1898, the United Statesintervened and the Spanish soon capitulated. In June, Philippine revolutionariesdeclared independence. However, it was not recognized by Spain, which sold the islands to the United States in theTreaty of Paris.
Led byAndrés Bonifacio, the Katipunan was formed in secrecy in 1892 in the wake of the nascentLa Liga Filipina, an organization created by Filipino nationalistJosé Rizal and others in Spain with goals of Philippine representation to theSpanish Parliament. Katipunan soon gained influence across the islands, and sought an armed revolution. However, that revolution started prematurely in August 1896 upon its discovery by Spanish authorities in Manila. The organization soondeclared war against Spain inCaloocan.[9] Early battles and skirmishes were centered around sieging the capital city ofManila led by Bonifacio himself, which ultimately failed. However, revolutionaries in the neighboring provinces fared better, particularly inCavite, where rebels led byMariano Álvarez and cousinsBaldomero andEmilio Aguinaldo won early major victories. This disparity in success, along with multiple factors, contributed to the eventual power struggle from within Katipunan's leadership. Two factions formed: Bonifacio'sMagdiwang and Aguinaldo'sMagdalo. This struggle culminated in the1897 elections in Tejeros, which saw Emilio Aguinaldo elected as presidentin absentia. Bonifacio nullified the results after a Magdalo member questioned his election as the Secretary of the Interior. This resulted in a schism, with Bonifacio's supporters alleging that the elections were fraudulent, with Bonifacio himself refusing to recognize the results. In April 1897, Aguinaldo ordered the arrest of Bonifacio. A trial was set inMaragondon, where the Magdalo-led jury found Bonifacio and his brotherProcopio guilty of treason, sentencing both of them to death. Despite calls for commuting the sentence for the sake of national unity, the brothers were executed in May 1897. Later that year, Aguinaldo's government and Spanish authorities signed thePact of Biak-na-Bato, which temporarily reduced hostilities. Filipino revolutionary officersexiled themselves toHong Kong. However, the hostilities never completely ceased.[10]
On April 21, 1898, after the sinking of theUSSMaine inHavana Harbor, the United States declared war against the Spanish Empire, starting the Spanish-American War.[11] On May 1, the U.S. Navy'sAsiatic Squadron, underGeorge Dewey, decisively defeated the Spanish Navy in theBattle of Manila Bay, effectively seizing control of the area surrounding Manila. On May 19, Aguinaldo, unofficially allied with the United States, returned to the Philippines and resumed attacks against the Spaniards. By June, the rebels had gained control of nearly the entirety of the countryside, while the cities remained under Spanish control. On June 12, Aguinaldo issued thePhilippine Declaration of Independence inKawit.[12] Although this signified the end date of the revolution, neither Spain nor the United States recognized Philippine independence.[13] TheTreaty of Paris was signed between Spain and the United States, formally ending Spanish rule to the islands and the Spanish-American war.[10] Despite attempts by the Filipino government, there were no Filipinos in the treaty.
On February 4, 1899,fighting broke out between the Filipino and American forces, beginning thePhilippine–American War. Aguinaldo immediately declared war, ordering "that peace and friendly relations with the Americans be broken and that the latter be treated as enemies".[14] In June 1899, theFirst Philippine Republic formally declared war against the United States,[15][16] which ended with thePhilippine Organic Act in July 1902. As a result, the islands become anunincorporated territory of the United States. A commonwealth government was formed in 1935, withManuel L. Quezon, Aguinaldo'saide-de-camp during the revolution, assuming the presidency. The Philippines was intended to become independent after aten-year commonwealth period but was cut short in the advent of theSecond World War in the Pacific. The country finally became fully independent on July 4, 1946, 50 years after the start of the revolution.
The main influx of revolutionary ideas came at the start of the 19th century when thePhilippines was opened for world trade. In 1809, the firstBritish firms were established inManila, followed by a royal decree in 1834 which officially opened the city to world trade. The Philippines had been governed fromMexico since 1565,[17] with colonial administrative costs sustained by subsidies from thegalleon trade. Increased competition with foreign traders brought the galleon trade to an end in 1815. AfterMexico became independent in 1821,Spain was forced to govern the Philippines directly fromMadrid and to find new sources of revenue to pay for the colonial administration.[18] At this point, post-French Revolution ideas entered the country through literature, which resulted in the rise of an enlightenedprincipalía class in society.
The1868 Spanish Revolution brought the rule ofQueen Isabella II to an end. The conservative government was replaced by aliberal government led byGeneral Francisco Serrano.[19] In 1869, Serrano appointedCarlos María de la Torre as the 91stgovernor-general. The leadership of de la Torre introduced the idea of liberalism to the Philippines.[19]
The election ofAmadeo of Savoy to thethrone of Spain led to the replacement of de la Torre in 1871.[20] In 1872, the government of the succeeding governor-general,Rafael de Izquierdo, experienced theuprising ofFilipino soldiers at theFort San Felipe arsenal inCavite el Viejo. Seven days after the mutiny, many people were arrested and tried. Three of these were secular priests:José Burgos,Mariano Gomez andfriarJacinto Zamora, who were hanged by Spanish authorities inBagumbayan.[21] Their execution had a profound effect on many Filipinos;José Rizal, the national hero, would dedicate his novelEl filibusterismo to their memory.[22]
Many Filipinos who were arrested for possible rebellion were deported to Spain, where they were distributed mainly in the African island ofBioko, in number of 211, 36 were deported to Chafarinas islands and just 3 in Ceuta. There were also deportees to the Marianas, the Carolines and islands of the south of the archipelago.[23] Some of them, however, managed to escape toHong Kong,Yokohama,Singapore,Paris,London,Vienna,Berlin, and some parts ofSpain. These people met fellow Filipino students and other exiles who had escaped from penal colonies. Bound together by a common fate, they established an organization known as thePropaganda Movement. Theseémigrés used their writings primarily to condemn Spanish abuses and seek reforms to the colonial government.
José Rizal's novels,Noli Me Tángere (Touch Me Not, 1887) andEl Filibusterismo (The Filibuster, 1891), exposed Spanish abuses in socio-political and religious aspects. The publication of his first novel brought the infamous agrarian conflict in his hometown ofCalamba, La Laguna, in 1888, whenDominicanhaciendas fell into trouble of submitting government taxes. In 1892, after his return from theAmericas, Rizal establishedLa Liga Filipina (The Filipino League), a Filipino association organized to seek reforms in the colonial government. When the Spaniards learned that Rizal was in the Philippines, they arrested and deported him a few days after the Liga was established.
Upon hearing thatRizal had been deported toDapitan, Liga memberAndrés Bonifacio and his fellows established a secret organization namedKatipunan in a house located inTondo, Manila, while more conservative members led by Domingo Franco and Numeriano Adriano would later establish theCuerpo de Compromisarios. The Katipunan obtained an overwhelming number of members and attracted the lowly classes. In June 1896, Bonifacio sent an emissary toDapitan to obtain Rizal's support, but Rizal refused to participate in an armed revolution. On August 19, 1896, Katipunan was discovered by a Spanish friar, which resulted in the start of the Philippine Revolution.
The revolution initially flared up inCentral Luzon. The armed resistance eventually spread throughout theSouthern Tagalog region, particularly inCavite province, where towns were gradually liberated during the early months of the uprising. In 1896 and 1897, successive conventions atImus andTejeros decided the new republic's fate. In November 1897, theRepublic of Biak-na-Bato was established, and the insurgent government promulgated a constitution. On May 1, 1898, theBattle of Manila Bay took place as part of theSpanish–American War. On May 24,Emilio Aguinaldo, who had returned from voluntary exile on May 19, announced in Cavite, "...I return to assume command of all the forces for the attainment of our lofty aspirations, establishing a dictatorial government which will set forth decrees under my sole responsibility, ...".[24] On June 12, Aguinaldo proclaimedPhilippine independence.[25] On June 18, Aguinaldo issued a decree proclaiming a Dictatorial Government led by himself.[26] On June 23, Aguinaldo issued another decree, which replaced the Dictatorial Government with a Revolutionary Government.[27] In 1898, between June and September 10, theMalolos Congress elections were held by the Revolutionary Government, resulting in Emilio Aguinaldo being elected as President of the Philippines. On February 2, 1899, hostilities broke out between U.S. and Filipino forces.[28] TheMalolos Constitution was adopted in a session convened on September 15, 1898. It was promulgated on January 21, 1899, creating theFirst Philippine Republic with Aguinaldo asPresident. On June 12, 1899, Aguinaldo promulgated adeclaration of war against the U.S., beginning thePhilippine–American War. U.S. forces captured Aguinaldo on March 23, 1901, and he swore allegiance to the U.S. on April 1. On July 4, 1902, U.S. PresidentTheodore Roosevelt proclaimed a complete pardon and amnesty for allFilipinos who had participated in the conflict, effectively ending the war.[29][30]
The Philippine Revolution was an accumulation of ideas and exposition to the international community, which led to the start of nationalistic endeavours. The rise ofFilipino nationalism was slow, but inevitable. Abuses by the Spanish government, military and clergy prevalent during three centuries of colonial rule, and the exposure of these abuses by the "ilustrados" in the late 19th century, paved the way for a united Filipino people.[31][32] However, the growth of nationalism was slow because of the difficulty in social and economic intercourse among the Filipinos. In a dated letter written by the Filipino writerJosé P. Rizal to Father Vicente García ofAteneo Municipal de Manila, Rizal states that:[33]
There is, then, in the Philippines, a progress or improvement which is individual, but there is no national progress.
— January 17, 1891
Before the opening ofManila to foreign trade, the Spanish authorities discouraged foreign merchants from residing in the colony and engaging in business.[34] The royal decree of February 2, 1800, prohibited foreigners from living in the Philippines.[35] as did the royal decrees of 1807 and 1816.[35] In 1823,Governor-GeneralMariano Ricafort promulgated an edict prohibiting foreign merchants from engaging in retail trade and visiting the provinces for the purpose of trading. It was reissued by Governor-GeneralLuis Lardizábal in 1840.[36] A royal decree issued in 1844 prohibited foreigners from traveling to the provinces under any pretext whatsoever, and in 1857, several anti-foreigner laws were renewed.[37]
With the wide acceptance oflaissez-faire doctrines in the later part of the 18th century, Spain relaxed itsmercantilist policies. TheBritishcapture andoccupation of Manila in 1762–1764 made Spain realize the impossibility of isolating the colony from world intercourse and commerce.[38] In 1789, foreign vessels were given permission to transport Asian goods to theport of Manila.[39] Even before the 1780s, many foreign ships, includingYankeeclipper ships, had visited Manila regardless of anti-foreigner regulations. In 1790, Governor-GeneralFélix Berenguer de Marquina recommended that theKing of Spain open Manila to world commerce.[40] Furthermore, the bankruptcy of theRoyal Company of the Philippines (Real Compaña de Filipinas) catapulted the Spanish king to open Manila to world trade. In a royal decree issued on September 6, 1834, the privileges of the company were revoked and the port of Manila was opened to trade.[41]
Shortly after the opening of Manila to world trade, the Spanish merchants began to lose their commercial supremacy in the Philippines. In 1834, restrictions against foreign traders were relaxed when Manila became an open port. By the end of 1859, there were 15 foreign firms in Manila. Seven of these were British, three were American, two were French, two were Swiss and one was German.[42]
In 1834, some American merchants settled in Manila and invested heavily in business. Two American business firms were established—theRussell, Sturgis & Company and thePeele, Hubbell & Company. These became two of the leading business firms. At first, Americans had an edge over their British competitors, because they offered high prices for Philippine exports such ashemp, sugar, and tobacco.[43]
American trade supremacy did not last long. In the face of stiff British competition, they gradually lost control over the Philippine business market. This decline was due to lack of support from theU.S. government and lack of U.S. trade bases in theOrient.[43] In 1875,Russell, Sturgis & Company went into bankruptcy, followed by Peele, Hubbell & Company in 1887. Soon after, British merchants, includingJames Adam Smith,Lawrence H. Bell andRobert P. Wood, dominated the financial sector in Manila.[43]
In 1842, alarmed by the domination of foreign merchants in the economy of Manila, the Spanish government sentSinibaldo de Mas, a Spanishdiplomat, to the Philippines in order to conduct an economic survey of the Philippines and submit recommendations.[44] After an intensive investigation of colonial affairs in the Philippines, Mas submitted his official report to the Crown. The report,Informe sobre el estado de las Islas Filipinas en 1842, was published at Madrid in 1843. Mas recommended the following: opening of more ports to promote foreign trade, encouragement ofChinese immigration to stimulate agricultural development, and abolition of the tobacco monopoly.[45]
In response toSinibaldo de Mas's recommendations, more ports were opened by Spain. The ports ofSual, Pangasinan,Iloilo andZamboanga were opened in 1855,Cebu was opened in 1860, and bothLegazpi andTacloban were opened in 1873.[46]
Before the start of the Philippine Revolution, Filipino society was subdivided into social classifications that were based on the economic status of a person. Background, ancestry, and economic status played a huge role in determining standing in the social hierarchy.
The Spanish people as well as native descendants of precolonial nobility belonged to the upper class, and they were further subdivided into more classes: thepeninsulares, thecreoles, and thePrincipalía. Thepeninsulares were people who were Spanish-born, but lived in the Philippines. Thecreoles, or criollo people, were Spaniards who were born in the colonies. The principalía was a hereditary class of local Indios who descended from precolonial datus,rajah and nobility, and were granted special rights and privileges such as positions in local government and the right to vote, though they were lower than the peninsulares and insulares in social standing. Many members of the Philippine Revolution belonged to the principalía class, likeJosé Rizal. Although thepeninsulares and thecreoles enjoyed the same social power, as they both belonged to the upper class, thepeninsulares considered themselves as socially superior to thecreoles and the nativeprincipalía.[47]
The lowest of the two classes was themasses, orIndios. This class included all poor commoners, peasants and laborers. Unlike theprincipalía class, where the members enjoyed high public offices and recommendations from theKing of Spain, the masses only enjoyed a few civil rights and privileges. The highest political office that they could possibly hold was thegobernadorcillo, or the town executive. The members ofKatipunan, the secret organization that would trigger the revolution, mainly consisted of the masses.[47]
Material prosperity at the start of the 19th century produced an enlightened middle class in the Philippines, consisting of well-to-do farmers, teachers, lawyers, physicians, writers, and government employees. Many of them were able to buy and read books originally withheld from the lowlyFilipino class. They discussed political problems and sought government reforms, and eventually, they were able to send their children to colleges and universities inManila and abroad, particularly toMadrid. The material progress was primarily due to the opening of theManila ports to world trade.[48]
The leading intellectuals of the country came from the enlightened middle class. They later called themselves theIlustrados, which means "erudite ones". They also considered themselves to be theintelligentsia branch of the Filipino society. From the Ilustrados rose the prominent members of thePropaganda Movement, who stirred the very first flames of the revolution.[49]
In 1868, arevolution overthrew the autocratic monarchy ofQueen Isabella II of Spain, which was replaced by a civil andliberal government withRepublican principles led byFrancisco Serrano.[50]: 107
The next year, Serrano appointedCarlos María de la Torre, a member of the Spanish Army, as the 91stGovernor-General of the Philippines. Filipino and Spanish liberals residing in the country welcomed him with a banquet at theMalacañan Palace on June 23, 1869. On the night of July 12, 1869, Filipino leaders, priests and students gathered and serenaded de la Torre at Malacañan Palace to express their appreciation for his liberal policies. The serenade was led by prominent residents of Manila, including José Cabezas de Herrera (the Civil Governor of Manila),José Burgos, Maximo Paterno, Manuel Genato, Joaquín Pardo de Tavera, Ángel Garchitorena, Andrés Nieto and Jacóbo Zóbel y Zangroniz.
An Assembly ofReformists, the Junta General de Reformas, was established in Manila. It consisted of five Filipinos, eleven Spanish civilians and five Spanish friars.[50]: 362–363 They had the ability to vote on reforms, subject to ratification by the Home Government.[50]: 363 However, none of the reforms were put into effect, due to the friars fearing that the reforms would diminish their influence. The Assembly ceased to exist after the 1874Restoration.[50]: 363
In 1776, the first major challenge to monarchy in centuriesoccurred in the American Colonies. Although theAmerican Revolution succeeded, it was in a relatively isolated area. In 1789, however, theFrench Revolution began to change the political landscape of Europe, as it ended the absolute monarchy in France. The power passed from the king to the people through representation in parliament. People in other European countries began asking for representation, as well. In the Philippines, this idea spread through the writings of criollo writers, such asLuis Rodríguez Varela, who called himself "Conde Filipino" (Earl of the Philippines).[51] This was the first time that a colonist called himself a Filipino rather than a Spanish subject. With the increasing economic and political stability in the Philippines, the middle class began demanding that the churches in the Philippines be nationalized through a process known as Secularization. In this process, control of Philippine parishes were to be passed from the religious orders to the secular priests, particularly Philippine-born priests. The religious orders, or friars, reacted negatively and a political struggle between the friars and the secular priests began.
The 19th century was also a new era forEurope. Church power was declining, and friars began coming to the Philippines, ending hopes that thefriars would relinquish their posts. With the opening of theSuez Canal, the voyage between Spain and the Philippines was made shorter. Morepeninsulares (Spaniards born in Spain) began pouring into the colony and started to occupy the various government positions traditionally held by the criollos (Spaniards born in the Philippines). In the 300 years of colonial rule, the criollos had been accustomed to being semi-autonomous with the governor-general, who was the only Spaniard (peninsulares) government official. The criollos demanded representation in theSpanish Cortes where they could express their grievances. This, together with secularization issues, gave rise to the Criollo insurgencies.
In the late 18th century,Criollo (or Insulares, "islanders", as they were locally called) writers began spreading the ideals of theFrench Revolution in the Philippines. At the same time, a royal decree ordered the secularization of Philippine churches, and many parishes were turned over to Philippine-born priests. Halfway through the process, it was aborted due to the return of theJesuits. The religious orders began retaking Philippine parishes. One instance that enraged the Insulares was theFranciscan takeover ofAntipolo, the richest parish in the islands, which had been under the control of Philippine-born priests. In the early 19th century, FathersPedro Peláez andMariano Gomez began organizing activities which demanded that control of Philippine parishes be returned to the Filipino seculars. Father Peláez, who was Archbishop of the Manila Cathedral, died in an earthquake, while Father Gómez retired to private life. The next generation of Insular activists included FatherJosé Burgos, who organized the student rallies in theUniversity of Santo Tomas. On the political front, Insular activists included Joaquín Pardo de Tavera and Jacobo Zobel. The unrest escalated into a large insurgency in 1823 whenAndres Novales, acreole captain, declared the Philippines to be independent from Spain and crowned himself Emperor of the Philippines.[51] In January 1872, the Insular uprisings began when soldiers and workers of the Cavite Arsenal ofFort San Felipe mutinied. They were led by sergeantFerdinand La Madrid, a Spanishmestizo. The soldiers mistook the fireworks inQuiapo, which were being fired for the feast of St. Sebastian, as the signal to start a long-planned national uprising. The colonial government used the incident to spread a reign of terror and to eliminate subversive political and church figures. Among these were priestsMariano Gomez,José Burgos, andJacinto Zamora, who were executed bygarrote on February 18, 1872. They are remembered in Philippine history asGomburza.[51]
TheCavite Mutiny of 1872, and the subsequent deportation of criollos and mestizos to theMariana Islands andEurope, created a colony of Filipino expatriates in Europe, particularly inMadrid. In Madrid,Marcelo H. del Pilar,Mariano Ponce,Eduardo de Lete, andAntonio Luna foundedLa Solidaridad, a newspaper that pressed for reforms in the Philippines and spread ideas of revolution.[50]: 363 This effort is known as thePropaganda Movement, and the result was the founding of secret societies in villages.[50]: 363 Among the pioneering editors of the paper wereGraciano López Jaena,Marcelo H. del Pilar, andJosé Rizal. The editors ofLa Solidaridad also included leading Spanish liberals, such as Miguel Morayta.[52] The Propaganda Movement in Europe resulted in the Spanish legislature passing some reforms for the islands, but the colonial government did not implement them. After being published from 1889 to 1895,La Solidaridad began to run out of funds, and it had not accomplished concrete changes in the Philippines. José Rizal decided to return to the Philippines, where he foundedLa Liga Filipina, the Manila chapter of the Propaganda Movement.
Only days after its founding, Rizal was arrested by colonial authorities and deported toDapitan, and the Liga was soon disbanded.[52] Ideological differences had contributed to its dissolution. Conservative upper-class members favoring reform, under the leadership ofApolinario Mabini, set up theCuerpo de Compromisarios, which attempted to reviveLa Solidaridad in Europe. Other, more radical members belonging to the middle and lower classes, led byAndrés Bonifacio, set up theKatipunan alongside the revivedLiga.
The goals of the Propaganda Movement included legal equality of Filipinos and Spaniards, restoration of Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes, "Filipinization" of the Catholic parishes, and the granting of individual liberties to Filipinos, such as freedom of speech, freedom of press, freedom of assembly, and freedom to petition for grievances.[53]
Andrés Bonifacio,Deodato Arellano,Ladislao Diwa,Teodoro Plata, andValentín Díaz founded the Katipunan (in full, Kataas-taasang, Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan,[54] "Supreme and Venerable Society of the Children of the Nation") in Manila on July 7, 1892. The organization, advocating independence through an armed revolt against Spain, was influenced by the rituals and organization ofFreemasonry; Bonifacio and other leading members were also Freemasons.
From Manila, the Katipunan expanded into several provinces, includingBatangas,La Laguna (now Laguna),Cavite,Bulacan,Pampanga,Tarlac,Nueva Ecija,Ilocos Sur,Ilocos Norte,Pangasinan,Bicol, andMindanao. Most of the members, called Katipuneros, came from the lower and middle classes. The Katipunan had "its own laws, bureaucratic structure and elective leadership".[9] The Katipunan Supreme Council (Kataas-taasang Kapulungan, of which Bonifacio was a member, and eventually head) coordinated provincial councils (Sangguniang Bayan).[10] The provincial councils were in charge of "public administration and military affairs on the supra-municipal or quasi-provincial level".[9] Local councils (Panguluhang Bayan)[10] were in charge of affairs "on the district orbarrio level."[9] By 1895, Bonifacio was the supreme leader (Supremo) or supreme president (Presidente Supremo)[55][56] of the Katipunan and was the head of its Supreme Council. Some historians estimate that there were between 30,000 and 400,000 members by 1896; other historians argue that there were only a few hundred to a few thousand members.[57]
The existence of theKatipunan eventually became known to the colonial authorities through Teodoro Patiño, who revealed it to the Spaniard La Font, general manager of the printing shopDiario de Manila.[55]: 29–31 Patiño was engaged in a bitter dispute over pay with a co-worker, Katipunero member Apolonio de la Cruz, and exposed the Katipunan in revenge.[58]: 30–31 La Font led a Spanish police lieutenant to the shop and to the desk of Apolonio, where they "found Katipunan paraphernalia such as a rubber stamp, a little book, ledgers, membership oaths signed in blood, and a membership roster of the Maghiganti chapter of the Katipunan."[58]: 31
As with theTerror of 1872, colonial authorities made several arrests and used torture to identify other Katipunan members.[58]: 31 Despite having no involvement in the secessionist movement, many of them were executed, notably Don Francisco Roxas.Bonifacio had forged their signatures in Katipunan documents, hoping that they would be forced to support the revolution.
On August 24, 1896, Bonifacio called Katipunan members to a mass gathering inCaloocan, where the group decided to start a nationwide armed revolution against Spain.[9][58]: 34–35 The event included a mass tearing ofcedulas (community tax certificates) accompanied by patriotic cries. The exact date and location are disputed, but two possibilities have been officially endorsed by the Philippine government: initially August 26 in Balintawak, and later August 23 inPugad Lawin. Thus, the event is called the "Cry of Pugad Lawin" or "Cry of Balintawak". However, the issue is further complicated by other possible dates such as August 24 and 25 and other locations such asKangkong,Bahay Toro andPasong Tamo. Furthermore, at the time, "Balintawak" referred not only to a specific place, but also a general area that included some of the proposed sites, such as Kangkong.[59][60]
Upon the discovery of the Katipunan, Bonifacio called all Katipunan councils to a meeting in Balintawak[61] or Kangkong[58][62] to discuss their situation. According to historianTeodoro Agoncillo, the meeting occurred on August 19;[61] however, revolutionary leaderSantiago Álvarez stated that it occurred on August 22.[58][62]
On August 21, Katipuneros were already congregating in Balintawak[61] in Caloocan.[58][62] Late in the evening, amidst heavy rain, the rebels moved to Kangkong in Caloocan, and arrived there past midnight.[58][62] As a precaution, the rebels moved to Bahay Toro[58] or Pugad Lawin[59] on August 23. Agoncillo places the Cry and tearing of certificates at the house of Juan Ramos, which was in Pugad Lawin.[59] Alvarez writes that they met at the house ofMelchora Aquino (known as "Tandang Sora", and mother of Juan Ramos) in Bahay Toro on that date.[58][62] Agoncillo places Aquino's house inPasong Tamo and the meeting there on August 24.[63] The rebels continued to congregate, and by August 24, there were over a thousand.[58][62]
On August 24, it was decided to notify the Katipunan councils of the surrounding towns that an attack on the capitalManila was planned for August 29.[58][62][63] Bonifacio appointed generals to lead rebel forces in Manila. Before hostilities erupted, Bonifacio also reorganized the Katipunan into an openrevolutionary government, with himself as president and the Supreme Council of the Katipunan as his cabinet.[10][58]
On the morning of August 25, the rebels came under attack by a Spanish civil guard unit, with the rebels having greater numbers but the Spanish being better armed. The forces disengaged after a brief skirmish and some casualties on both sides.[58][62][63]
Another skirmish took place on August 26, which sent the rebels retreating toward Balara. At noon, Bonifacio and some of his men briefly rested inDiliman. In the afternoon, civil guards sent toCaloocan to investigate attacks onChinese merchants— done by bandits who had attached themselves to the rebels—came across a group of Katipuneros and briefly engaged them.[50]: 367 The commander of the guards, Lieutenant Ros, reported the encounter to the authorities, and the report droveGovernor-GeneralRamón Blanco to prepare for coming hostilities.[58][62] General Blanco had about 10,000 Spanish regulars and thegunboatsIsla de Cuba andIsla de Luzon by the end of November.[50]: 365
From August 27 to 28, Bonifacio moved from Balara to Mt. Balabak in Hagdang Bato,Mandaluyong. There, he held meetings to finalize plans for the Manila attack the following day. Bonifacio issued the following general proclamation:
This manifesto is for all of you. It is absolutely necessary for us to stop at the earliest possible time the nameless oppositions being perpetrated on the sons of the country who are now suffering the brutal punishment and tortures in jails, and because of this please let all the brethren know that on Saturday, the 29th of the current month, the revolution shall commence according to our agreement. For this purpose, it is necessary for all towns to rise simultaneously and attack Manila at the same time. Anybody who obstructs this sacred ideal of the people will be considered a traitor and an enemy, except if he is ill; or is not physically fit, in which case he shall be tried according to the regulations we have put in force. Mount of Liberty, 28 August 1896 – ANDRÉS BONIFACIO[62]
The conventional view among Filipino historians is that Bonifacio did not carry out the planned Katipunan attack on Manila the following day and instead attacked a powder magazine atSan Juan del Monte.[64][65] However, more recent studies have advanced the view that the planned attack did occur; according to this view, Bonifacio's battle at San Juan del Monte (now called the "Battle of Pinaglabanan") was only a part of a bigger "battle for Manila" hitherto unrecognized as such.[10][62]
Hostilities in the area started on the evening of August 29, when hundreds of rebels attacked theCivil Guard garrison inPasig, just as hundreds of other rebels personally led by Bonifacio were amassing inSan Juan del Monte, which they attacked at about 4 a.m. on the 30th.[50]: 368 Bonifacio planned to capture the San Juan del Monte powder magazine[50]: 368 along with a water station which suppliedManila. The Spaniards, outnumbered, fought a delaying battle until reinforcements arrived. Once reinforced, the Spaniards drove Bonifacio's forces back with heavy casualties. Elsewhere, rebels attackedMandaluyong,Sampaloc,Sta. Ana,Pandacan,Pateros,Marikina, andCaloocan,[62] as well asMakati andTaguig.[64] Balintawak in Caloocan saw intense fighting. Rebel troops tended to gravitate towards fighting inSan Juan del Monte andSampaloc.[62] South of Manila, a thousand-strong rebel force attacked a small force of civil guards. InPandacan, Katipuneros attacked the parish church, making the parish priest run for his life.[64]
After their defeat inBattle of San Juan del Monte, Bonifacio's troops regrouped nearMarikina,San Mateo andMontalban, where they proceeded to attack these areas. They captured the areas, but were driven back by Spanish counterattacks, and Bonifacio eventually ordered a retreat to Balara. On the way, Bonifacio was nearly killed shieldingEmilio Jacinto from a Spanish bullet that grazed his collar.[64] Despite his retreat, Bonifacio was not completely defeated and was still considered to be a threat.[10][62]
South of Manila, the towns ofSan Francisco de Malabon,Noveleta andKawit inCavite rebelled a few days after.[64] InNueva Ecija, north ofManila, rebels inSan Isidro, led byMariano Llanera, attacked the Spanish garrison on September 2–4, but they were repulsed.[66]
By August 30, the revolt had spread to eight provinces. On that date, Governor-GeneralRamón Blanco declared a "state of war" in these provinces and placed them undermartial law.[50]: 368 These provinces wereManila,Bulacan,Cavite,Pampanga,Tarlac,La Laguna,Batangas, andNueva Ecija.[51][64][67] They would later be represented as the eight rays of the sun in theFilipino flag. Additionally, due to the scant military resources Spain had in the Philippines, the governor called for the participation of civilians in the defence of Spanish sovereignty and established the Loyal Volunteers' Battalion in Manila, following the example of similar units created in Cuba and Puerto Rico between the 1850s and the 1860s. More similar units were created in Manila and other areas under Spanish control.[68]
The rebels had few firearms; they were mostly armed withbolo knives andbamboo spears. The lack of guns has been proposed as a possible reason why the Manila attack allegedly never succeeded.[64] Also, the Katipunan leaders fromCavite had earlier expressed reservations about starting an uprising due to their lack of firearms and preparation. As a result, they did not send troops toManila, but instead attacked garrisons in their own locales. Some historians have argued that the Katipunan defeat in the Manila area was (partly) the fault of the Cavite rebels due to their absence, as their presence would have proved crucial.[10][62] In their memoirs, Cavite rebel leaders justified their absence in Manila by claimingBonifacio failed to execute pre-arranged signals to begin the uprising, such as setting balloons loose and extinguishing the lights at theLuneta park. However, these claims have been dismissed as "historical mythology"; as reasoned by historians, if they were really waiting for signals before marching on Manila, they would have arrived "too late for the fray". Bonifacio's command for a simultaneous attack is interpreted as evidence that such signals were never arranged.[10][62] Other factors for the Katipunan defeat include the capture of Bonifacio's battle plans by Spanish intelligence. The Spanish concentrated their forces in the Manila area while pulling out troops in other provinces (which proved beneficial for rebels in other areas, particularly Cavite). The authorities also transferred a regiment of 500 native troops toMarawi,Mindanao, where the soldiers later rebelled.[10][62]
When the revolution broke out, Rizal was inCavite, awaiting the monthly mailboat toSpain. He had volunteered, and been accepted, for medical service in the Spanish Army fighting inCuba. The mailboat left on September 3 and arrived inBarcelona, which was undermartial law, on October 3, 1896. After a brief confinement atMontjuich prison, Rizal was told by Captain-GeneralEulogio Despujol that he would not be going on toCuba, but would be sent back to thePhilippines instead. Upon his return, he was imprisoned inFort Santiago.
While incarcerated, Rizal petitioned Governor-GeneralRamón Blanco for permission to make a statement on the rebellion.[69] His petition was granted, and Rizal wrote theManifesto á Algunos Filipinos, wherein he decried the use of his name "as a war-cry among certain people who were up in arms",[70] stated that "for reforms to bear fruit, they must come from above, since those that come from below will be irregular and uncertain shocks",[71] and affirmed that he "condemn[s], this absurd, savage insurrection".[71] However, the text was suppressed on the recommendation of the Judge-Advocate General.[71]
By December, there were three major centers of rebellion:Cavite (underEmilio Aguinaldo),Bulacan (underMariano Llanera) andMorong (now part ofRizal, under Bonifacio). Bonifacio served astactician for the rebel guerillas, though his prestige suffered when he lost battles that he personally led.[10]
Meanwhile, in Cavite, Katipuneros underMariano Álvarez, Bonifacio's uncle by marriage, andBaldomero Aguinaldo ofCavite El Viejo (modernKawit), won early victories. TheMagdalo council commissionedEdilberto Evangelista, an engineer, to plan the defense and logistics of the revolution in Cavite. His first victory was in theBattle of Imus on September 1, 1896, defeating the Spanish forces under General Ernesto Aguirre with the aid ofJose Tagle. The Cavite revolutionaries, particularlyEmilio Aguinaldo, won prestige through defeating Spanish troops in "set piece" battles, while other rebels like Bonifacio and Llanera were engaged inguerrilla warfare. Aguinaldo, speaking for the Magdalo ruling council, issued a manifesto proclaiming a provisional and revolutionary government after his early successes, despite the existence of Bonifacio's Katipunan government.[72]
The Katipunan in Cavite was divided into two councils: theMagdiwang (led by Alvarez) and theMagdalo (led byBaldomero Aguinaldo, Emilio's cousin). At first, these two Katipunan councils cooperated with each other in the battlefield, as in thebattles of Binakayan and Dalahican, where they won their first major victory over the Spaniards. However, rivalries between command and territory soon developed, and they refused to cooperate with each other in battle.
To unite the Katipunan in Cavite, theMagdiwang, throughArtemio Ricarte andPío del Pilar, called Bonifacio, who was fighting inMorong (present-day Rizal) province to mediate between the factions. Perhaps due to his kinship ties with their leader, Bonifacio was seen as partial to the Magdiwang.[73]
It was not long before the issue of leadership was debated. The Magdiwang faction recognized Bonifacio as supreme leader, being the head of the Katipunan. The Magdalo faction agitated forEmilio Aguinaldo to be the movement's head because of his successes in the battlefield compared to Bonifacio's record of personal defeats. Meanwhile, the Spanish troops, now under the command of the new Governor-GeneralCamilo de Polavieja, steadily gained ground.
On December 31, an assembly was convened inImus to settle the leadership dispute. TheMagdalo insisted on the establishment of revolutionary government to replace theKatipunan. TheMagdiwang favored retention of the Katipunan, arguing that it was already a government in itself. The assembly dispersed without a consensus.[74]
On March 22, 1897, another meeting was held inTejeros. It called for the election of officers for the revolutionary government, which was in need of united military forces, as there was a pending Spanish offensive against the Magdalo faction. The Magdiwang faction allied withBonifacio and prepared and hosted the election, as most of the Magdalo faction was occupied by battle preparations. Bonifacio chaired the election and stated that the election results were to be respected. When the voting ended, Bonifacio had lost and the leadership turned over toAguinaldo, who was away fighting in Pasong Santol. Bonifacio also lost other positions to members of his Magdiwang faction. Instead, he was elected as Director of the Interior, but his qualifications were questioned by a Magdalo,Daniel Tirona. Bonifacio felt insulted and would have shot Tirona ifArtemio Ricarte had not intervened. Invoking his position of Supremo of the Katipunan, Bonifacio declared the election void and stomped out in anger.[75] Aguinaldo took his oath of office as president the next day inSanta Cruz de Malabon (present-day Tanza) inCavite, as did the rest of the officers, except for Bonifacio.[76] Bonifacio repudiated the election results and moved his headquarters tpNaic where he and other signatories issued theActa de Tejeros, essentially resolving to establish a government separate from the one established at Tejeros.[77]
When Limbon in Indang, a town inCavite, refused to supply provisions, Bonifacio ordered it to be burned.[55]: 117 When Aguinaldo learned about the Naic Military Agreement and the reports of abuse, he ordered the arrest of Bonifacio and his soldiers (without Bonifacio's knowledge) on April 27, 1897.[55]: 120 Colonel Agapito Bonzon met with Bonifacio in Limbon and attacked him the next day. Bonifacio and his brotherProcopio were wounded, while their brother Ciriaco was killed on April 28.[55]: 121 They were taken to Naic to stand trial.[55]: 124
The Consejo de Guerra (War Council) sentenced Andrés and Procopio to death on May 10, 1897, for committing sedition and treason.[60] Aguinaldo supported the deportation of Andrés and Procopio rather than execution,[55]: 140 but withdrew his decision as a result of pressure fromPío del Pilar and other officers of the revolution.
On May 10, MajorLázaro Makapagal, upon orders from GeneralMariano Noriel, executed the Bonifacio brothers[55]: 143 at the foothills of Mount Buntis,[60] nearMaragondon. Andrés and Procopio were buried in a shallow grave, marked only with twigs.
The battle of Kakarong de Sili took place on January 1, 1897.Pandi, Bulacan, played a vital and historical role in the fight for Philippine independence. Pandi is historically known for the Real de Kakarong de Sili Shrine – Inang Filipina Shrine, the site where the bloodiest revolution in Bulacan took place, where more than 3,000Katipunero revolutionaries died. Likewise, it is on this site where the 'Republic of Real de Kakarong de Sili' of 1896, one of the first Philippinerevolutionary republics, was established. It was also in Kakarong de Sili that theKakarong Republic[78] was organized shortly after theCry of Pugad Lawin by about 6,000 Katipuneros from various towns of Bulacan, headed by Brigadier General Eusebio Roque (better known as "Maestrong Sebio or Dimabungo").[79]
History and researchers,[who?] as well as records of theNational Historical Commission tell that the Kakarong Republic was the first truly organized revolutionary government established in the country to overthrow the Spaniards, antedating even the famousMalolos Republic and theBiak-na-Bato Republic. In recognition thereof, these three "Republics" established in Bulacan have been incorporated in the provincial seal. The Kakarong Republic, established in late 1896, grew out of the localKatipunan chapter in the town ofPandi, Bulacan, called the Balangay Dimas-Alang.
According to available records, including the biography of GeneralGregorio del Pilar, entitled "Life and Death of a Boy General" (written byTeodoro Kalaw, former director of theNational Library of the Philippines), a fort was constructed at Kakarong de Sili that was like a miniature city. It had streets, an independent police force, a military band, a military arsenal with factories for bolos and artillery, and repair shops for rifles and cartridges. The Kakarong Republic had a complete set of officials, withCanuto Villanueva as Supreme Chief and Captain General of the military forces, andEusebio Roque, also known by his nom-de-guerre "Maestrong Sebio", then head of the Katipunan local organization, as Brigadier General of the Army of the Republic. The fort was attacked and completely destroyed on January 1, 1897, by a large Spanish force headed by GeneralJosé Olaguer Feliú.[80] GeneralGregorio del Pilar was only a lieutenant at that time, and the Battle of Kakarong de Sili was his first "baptism of fire". This was where he was first wounded and escaped to Manatal, a nearbybarangay.
In memory of the 1,200 Katipuneros who perished in the battle, the Kakarong Lodge No. 168 of the Legionarios del Trabajo erected a monument of the Inang Filipina Shrine (Mother Philippines Shrine) in 1924 in thebarrio of Kakarong in Pandi, Bulacan. The actual site of the Battle of Kakarong de Sili is now a part of the barangay of Real de Kakarong.Emilio Aguinaldo visited this ground in his late fifties.
Augmented by new recruits fromSpain, government troops recaptured several towns inCavite, takingImus on March 25, 1897.[55]: 110 The head of the Spanish expeditionary force, GeneralJosé de Lacambre, then offered amnesty to all who would surrender and accept Spanish authority.[55]: 111 In May 1897, the Spanish capturedMaragondon, forcing the Government of the Philippine Republic to move to Mt. Buntis.[55]: 146 By June, the Spanish had takenMendez Nunez,Amadeo,Alfonso,Bailen andMagallanes with little resistance.[55]: 149 The Spanish planned war, including the concentration of rebel relatives and friends in camps.[55]: 222
As argued byApolinario Mabini and others, the succession of defeats for the rebels could be attributed to discontent that resulted fromAndrés Bonifacio's death. Mabini wrote:
This tragedy smothered the enthusiasm for the revolutionary cause, and hastened the failure of the insurrection inCavite, because many fromManila,La Laguna andBatangas, who were fighting for the province (of Cavite), were demoralized and quit...[81]
In other areas, some of Bonifacio's associates, such asEmilio Jacinto andMacario Sakay, never subjected their military commands toEmilio Aguinaldo's authority.
Aguinaldo and his men retreated northward, from one town to the next, until they finally settled in Biak-na-Bato, in the town ofSan Miguel de Mayumo inBulacan. Here they established what became known as theRepublic of Biak-na-Bato, with a constitution drafted by Isabelo Artacho and Felix Ferrer, based on the firstCuban Constitution.[82]
The new Spanish Governor-GeneralFernando Primo de Rivera, declaring "I can take Biak-na-Bato. Any army can capture it. But I cannot end the rebellion",[83] proffered peace to the revolutionaries. A lawyer namedPedro Paterno volunteered to be negotiator between the two sides. For four months, he travelled betweenManila andBiak-na-Bato. His hard work finally bore fruit when, on December 14 to 15, 1897, thePact of Biak-na-Bato was signed. Consisting of three documents, it called for the following agenda:[84]
Aguinaldo and eighteen other top officials of the revolution, includingMariano Llanera,Tomás Mascardo,Benito Natividad,Gregorio del Pilar, andVicente Lukban left Biak-na-Bato on December 24, 1897, for exile inHong Kong.
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Not all revolutionary generals complied with the treaty. One, GeneralFrancisco Macabulos, established aCentral Executive Committee to serve as theinterim government until a more suitable one was created. Armed conflicts resumed, this time coming from almost every province in thePhilippines. The colonial authorities, on the other hand, continued the arrest and torture of those suspected of committingbanditry.
Aguinaldo and his party arrived in Hong Kong with MXN$400,000.[b] The funds were deposited in bank account controlled by Aguinaldo. The exiles were convinced that the Spaniards would never give the rest of the money promised. After their arrival, Isabelo Artacho, a revolutionary who had not been exiled, arrived in Hong Kong and demanded the funds as payment for his services, threatening legal action which would tie up the funds. On advice from Felipe Agoncillo, Aguinaldo and two aides fled under false names toEurope with a stop-over inSingapore.[86] In Singapore, Aguinaldo met clandestinely with U.S. ConsulE. Spencer Pratt, who learned that war had been declared between the U.S. and Spain.[87][86]
The failure of Spain to engage in active social reforms inCuba as demanded by the United States government was the basic cause for theSpanish–American War. American attention was focused on the issue after the mysterious explosion that sank the American battleshipMaine on February 15, 1898, inHavana Harbor. As public political pressure from theDemocratic Party and certain industrialists built up for war, the U.S. Congress forced the reluctantRepublican presidentWilliam McKinley to issue an ultimatum to Spain on April 19, 1898. Spain found it had no diplomatic support in Europe, but neverthelessdeclared war; the U.S. followed on April 25 with its own declaration of war.[88][89]
Theodore Roosevelt, who was at that timeAssistant Secretary of the Navy, ordered CommodoreGeorge Dewey, commanding theAsiatic Squadron of theUnited States Navy: "Order the squadron ...to Hong Kong. Keep full of coal. In the event of declaration of war Spain, your duty will be to see that the Spanish squadron does not leave the Asiatic coast, and then offensive operations in Philippine Islands." Dewey's squadron departed on April 27 for the Philippines, reachingManila Bay on the evening of April 30.[90]
On April 27,CommodoreGeorge Dewey sailed forManila with a fleet of nine U.S. ships. Upon arriving on May 1, Dewey encountered a fleet of nine Spanish ships commanded byAdmiralPatricio Montojo. The subsequentBattle of Manila Bay only lasted for a few hours, and ended with no loss of life among the American forces. While the naval victory was decisive, the small fleet lacked the numbers needed to capture Manila. The U.S. squadron took control of the arsenal and navy yard atCavite. Dewey cabledWashington, stating that although he controlled Manila Bay, he needed 5,000 additional men to seizeManila itself. The fleet remained inManila Bay while reinforcements were sent from the United States.[91][92]
The unexpected rapidity and completeness of Dewey's victory in the first engagement of the war prompted theMcKinley administration to make the decision to capture Manila from the Spanish. TheUnited States Army began to assemble theEighth Army Corps—a military unit which would consist of 10,844 soldiers under the command of Major GeneralWesley Merritt—in preparation for deployment to the Philippines.[91]
On May 7, 1898,USS McCulloch, an American dispatch boat, arrived inHong Kong fromManila, bringing reports of Dewey's victory in theBattle of Manila Bay.Emilio Aguinaldo had recently returned there fromSingapore expecting to be transported to Manila by the Americans, butMcCulloch had no orders regarding this.McCulloch again arrived in Hong Kong on May 15 bearing such orders and departed Hong Kong with Aguinaldo aboard on May 17, arriving inManila Bay on May 19.[93] Several revolutionaries, as well asFilipino soldiers employed by the Spanish army, crossed over to Aguinaldo's command.
Aguinaldo arrived on May 19 and, after a brief meeting with Dewey, resumed revolutionary activities against the Spanish. On May 24, Aguinaldo issued a proclamation in which he assumed command of all Philippine forces and announced his intention to establish adictatorial government with himself as dictator, saying that he would resign in favor of a duly elected president.[94]
In theBattle of Alapan on May 28, 1898, Aguinaldo raided the last remaining stronghold of the Spanish Empire inCavite with fresh reinforcements of about 12,000 men. This battle eventually liberated Cavite from Spanish colonial control and led to the first time the modern flag of the Philippines being unfurled in victory.
Public jubilation marked Aguinaldo's return. Many Filipino enlisted mendeserted local Spanish army units to join Aguinaldo's command and the Philippine Revolution against Spain resumed. Soon, many towns such asImus,Bacoor,Parañaque,Las Piñas,Morong,Macabebe andSan Fernando, as well as some entireprovinces such asLa Laguna (now Laguna),Batangas,Bulacan,Nueva Ecija,Bataan, Tayabas (nowQuezon), and theCamarines provinces, were liberated by the Filipinos and the port of Dalahican in Cavite was secured.[95]
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The first contingent of American troops arrived on June 30 under the command of Brigadier GeneralThomas McArthur Anderson, commander of the Eighth Corps' 2nd Division (U.S. brigade and division numbers of the era were not unique throughout the army). General Anderson wrote to Aguinaldo, requesting his cooperation in military operations against the Spanish forces.[96] Aguinaldo responded, thanking General Anderson for his amicable sentiments, but saying nothing about military cooperation. General Anderson did not renew the request.[96]
The 2nd Brigade and the 2nd Division of the Eighth Corps arrived on July 17, under the command of Brigadier GeneralFrancis V. Greene. Major GeneralWesley Merritt (theCommander in Chief of the Philippine Expedition) and his staff arrived at Cavite on July 25. The 1st Brigade of the corps' 2nd Division arrived on July 30, under the command of Brigadier GeneralArthur MacArthur.[97]
By June 1898, the island ofLuzon, except for Manila and the port of Cavite, was under Filipino control, after General Monet's retreat to Manila with his remaining force of 600 men and 80 wounded.[50]: 445 The revolutionaries were laying siege to Manila and cutting off its food and water supply. With most of the archipelago under his control, Aguinaldo decided it was time to establish a Philippine government. When Aguinaldo arrived from Hong Kong, he had brought with him a copy of a plan drawn byMariano Ponce, calling for the establishment of a revolutionary government. Upon the advice ofAmbrosio Rianzares Bautista, however, anautocratic regime was established on May 24, with Aguinaldo as dictator.
It was under this dictatorship[citation needed] On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo proclaimed the independence of the Philippines athis house inCavite El Viejo.[98][99]Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista wrote thePhilippine Declaration of Independence, and read this document in Spanish that day at Aguinaldo's house.[25] The firstFilipino flag was again unfurled and thenational anthem was played for the first time.[citation needed] On June 18, Aguinaldo issued a decree formally establishing his dictatorial government.[26]Apolinario Mabini, Aguinaldo's closest adviser, opposed Aguinaldo's decision to establish anautocracy. He instead urged Aguinaldo to create a revolutionary government. Aguinaldo refused to do so; however, Mabini was eventually able to convince him.[citation needed] On June 23, Aguinaldo issued another decree, this time replacing the dictatorial government with arevolutionary government (and naming himself as president).[27][100]
Writing retrospectively in 1899, Aguinaldo claimed that U.S. ConsulE. Spencer Pratt had verbally assured him that "the United States would at least recognize the independence of the Philippines under the protection of the United States Navy".[101] In an April 28 message from Pratt toU.S. Secretary of StateWilliam R. Day, there was no mention of independence, or of any conditions on which Aguinaldo was to cooperate. In a July 28 communication, Pratt stated that no promises had been made to Aguinaldo regarding U.S. policy, with the concept aimed at facilitating the occupation and administration of the Philippines, while preventing a possible conflict of action.[102][103] On June 16, Day cabled Pratt with instructions to avoid unauthorized negotiations, along with a reminder that Pratt had no authority to enter into arrangements on behalf of the U.S. government.[104] Filipino scholarMaximo Kalaw wrote in 1927: "A few of the principal facts, however, seem quite clear. Aguinaldo was not made to understand that, in consideration of Filipino cooperation, the United States would extend its sovereignty over the Islands, and thus in place of the old Spanish master a new one would step in. The truth was that nobody at the time ever thought that the end of the war would result in the retention of the Philippines by the United States."[105]
On July 15, Aguinaldo issued threeorganic decrees assuming civil authority of the Philippines.[106] American generals suspected Aguinaldo was attempting to take Manila without American assistance, had restricted supplies to American forces, and was secretly negotiating with Spanish authorities while informing them of American troop movements.[107][108][109] Aguinaldo warned that American troops should not disembark in places conquered by the Filipinos without first communicating in writing, and did not offer his full service to arriving American forces.[110]
By June, U.S. and Filipino forces had taken control of most of the islands, except for the walled city ofIntramuros. Admiral Dewey and General Merritt were able to work out a bloodless solution with acting governor-generalFermín Jáudenes. The negotiating parties made a secret agreement to stage a mock battle in which the Spanish forces would be defeated by the American forces, but the Filipino forces would not be allowed to enter the city. This plan minimized the risk of unnecessary casualties on all sides, while the Spanish would also avoid the shame of possibly having to surrender Intramuros to the Filipino forces.[111]
On the evening of August 12, the Americans notified Aguinaldo to forbid the insurgents under his command from entering Manila without American permission.[112][113] On August 13, unaware of the peace protocol signing,[112][114][115][116] U.S. forces assaulted and captured Spanish positions in Manila. While the plan was for a mock battle and simple surrender, the insurgents made an independent attack of their own, which led to confrontations with the Spanish in which some American soldiers were killed and wounded.[112][117] The Spanish formally surrendered Manila to U.S. forces.[118] There was some looting by Insurgent forces in portions of the city they occupied.[119] Aguinaldo demanded joint occupation of the city,[120] however U.S. commanders pressed Aguinaldo to withdraw his forces from Manila.[121]
On August 12, 1898,The New York Times reported that apeace protocol had been signed in Washington that afternoon between the U.S. and Spain, suspending hostilities between the two nations.[122] The full text of the protocol was not made public until November 5, but Article III read: "The United States will occupy and hold the City, Bay, and Harbor of Manila, pending the conclusion of a treaty of peace, which shall determine the control, disposition, and government of the Philippines."[123][124] After conclusion of this agreement, U.S. President McKinley proclaimed a suspension of hostilities with Spain.[125] General Merritt received news of the August 12 peace protocol on August 16, three days after the surrender of Manila.[126] Admiral Dewey and General Merritt were informed by a telegram dated August 17 that the president of the United States had directed that the United States should have full control over Manila, with no joint occupation permissible.[120] After further negotiations, insurgent forces withdrew from the city on September 15.[127]
This battle marked the end of Filipino-American collaboration, as the American action of preventing Filipino forces from entering the captured city of Manila was deeply resented by the Filipinos.[128]
On August 14, 1898, two days after the capture of Manila, the U.S. established a military government in the Philippines, with GeneralWesley Merritt acting as military governor.[129] During military rule (1898–1902), the U.S. military commander governed the Philippines under the authority of the U.S. president ascommander-in-chief of theUnited States Armed Forces. After the appointment of acivil governor-general, the procedure developed that as parts of the country were pacified and placed firmly under American control, responsibility for the area would be passed to civilians.
General Merritt was succeeded by GeneralOtis as military governor, who in turn was succeeded by GeneralMacArthur. Major GeneralAdna Chaffee was the final military governor. The position of military governor was abolished in July 1902, after which the civil governor-general became the sole executive authority in the Philippines.[130][131]
Under the military government, an American-style school system was introduced, initially with soldiers as teachers; civil and criminal courts were reestablished, including a supreme court;[132] and local governments were established in towns and provinces. The first local election was conducted by General Harold W. Lawton on May 7, 1899, inBaliuag, Bulacan.[133]
After the United States occupied Manila in August 1898, Spanish authority elsewhere in the islands persisted briefly. The remaining colonial administration, under Governor-GeneralDiego de los Ríos, withdrew to theVisayas and established a provisional government inIloilo, which became, in effect, the new capital of theSpanish East Indies.[134] Despite the growing revolutionary movement inPanay, Iloilo remained loyal to Spain, largely due to its strong economic ties and allegiance to Spain.[135][136]
Meanwhile, peace negotiations between Spain and the United States were underway in Paris. The initial instructions to the American peace commission were to seek onlyLuzon andGuam as strategic bases,[137] but PresidentWilliam McKinley later directed the commission to demand the entire Philippine archipelago.[138] The resultingTreaty of Paris, signed on December 10, 1898, formally ended the Spanish–American War and provided for the cession of the Philippines to the United States in exchange for $20 million.[139][140][141] This was later clarified by the1900 Treaty of Washington, which included other Spanish-held islands outside the boundaries defined in the Treaty of Paris.[142]
Even after the treaty’s signing, Spanish control in the Visayas continued briefly. On December 25, 1898, de los Ríos surrendered Iloilo to Filipino revolutionary forces led by GeneralMartín Delgado, marking the final end of Spanish rule in the Philippines.[143][144]
On December 21, 1898, President McKinley proclaimed a policy ofbenevolent assimilation, outlining U.S. policy toward the newly acquired Philippines. Announced in Manila on January 4, 1899, it declared that the islands would come under American sovereignty, with U.S. forces instructed to regard the Filipino people as friends rather than enemies.[145]
Elections were held by the revolutionary government between June and September 10, resulting in the seating of a legislature known as theMalolos Congress.[146] This followed the recommendations of the decree that established the revolutionary government, and the Congreso Revolucionario (Revolutionary Congress) was assembled atBarasoain Church inMalolos, Bulacan on September 15.[50]: 469 All of the delegates to thecongress were from theilustrado class. Mabini objected to the call for a constitutional assembly; when he did not succeed, he drafted a constitution of his own, which also failed. A draft by an ilustrado lawyer,Felipe Calderón y Roca, was instead presented, and this became the framework upon which the assembly drafted the first constitution, theMalolos Constitution. On November 29, the assembly, now popularly called theMalolos Congress, finished the draft. However, Aguinaldo, who always placed Mabini in high esteem and heeded most of his advice, refused to sign the draft when the latter objected. On January 21, 1899, after some modifications were made to suit Mabini's arguments, theconstitution was finally approved by the Congress and signed by Aguinaldo. Two days later, the Philippine Republic (also called the First Republic andMalolos Republic) was established inMalolos withEmilio Aguinaldo as president.[50]: 486 Its finalized constitution includes an article essentially authorizing the president to rule by decree, "while the country needs to fight for its independence".[147] Two days later, the Philippine Republic (also called the First Republic andMalolos Republic) was established inMalolos withEmilio Aguinaldo as president.[50]: 486
On February 4, less than two weeks after the establishment ceremonies, the1899 Battle of Manila erupted between Filipino and American forces. Fighting escalated quickly, developing from a continuance of the revolution into thePhilippine–American War. Aguinaldo sent an emissary to the American commander,General Otis to appeal for an end to the fighting, but Otis rejected it, insisting that "fighting, having begun, must go on to the grim end."[148][149] On June 2, the Governing Council of the Philippine Republic declared in a proclamation that it "has concluded to continue the war" against the Americans.[28] Fighting quickly escalated into thePhilippine–American War.
On February 4, 1899, hostilities between Filipino and American forces began when an American sentry patrolling between Filipino and American lines shot a Filipino soldier. The Filipino forces returned fire, thus igniting asecond battle for Manila.Aguinaldo sent a ranking member of his staff toEllwell Otis, the U.S. military commander, with the message that the firing had been against his orders. According to Aguinaldo, Otis replied, "The fighting, having begun, must go on to the grim end."[150] The Philippines declared war against the United States on June 2, 1899, withPedro Paterno, President of the Congress of the First Philippine Republic, issuing a Proclamation of War.[16]
As the First Philippine Republic was never recognized as asovereign state, and the United States never formally declared war, the conflict was not concluded by a treaty. On July 2, 1902, theUnited States Secretary of War telegraphed that since the insurrection against the United States had ended and provincial civil governments had been established throughout most of thePhilippine archipelago, the office of military governor was terminated.[151] On July 4,Theodore Roosevelt, who had succeeded to the U.S. presidency after theassassination of William McKinley, proclaimed anamnesty to those who had participated in the conflict.[151][30] On April 9, 2002, Philippine PresidentGloria Macapagal Arroyo proclaimed that the Philippine–American War had ended on April 16, 1902, with the surrender of GeneralMiguel Malvar,[152] and declared the centennial anniversary of that date as a national working holiday and as a special non-working holiday in the Province ofBatangas and in the cities ofBatangas,Lipa andTanauan.[153]
The revolution essentially ended with the capture of Emilio Aguinaldo by American Forces on March 23, 1901, though fighting continued for some time in a few areas. Aguinaldo declared allegiance to the United States on April 1 and issued a proclamation on April 19 acknowledging that most of the Filipino people had united around the United States, declaring "unmistakably in favor of peace", and said, "a complete termination of hostilities and lasting peace are not only desirable, but absolutely essential to the welfare of the Philippine Islands."[154] The U.S. president responded to this on July 4 by proclaiming a full and complete pardon and amnesty to all persons in the Philippine archipelago who have participated in the insurrection against U.S. sovereignty over the Philippines.[131]
TheCorrelates of War project estimates that both sides suffered over 2000 combat deaths while losing many more to disease.[7]
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1897 Constitution of Biak-na-Bato (Philippines) at Wikisource.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{citation}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link). An English translation under the titleTravels in the Philippines was printed in London, 1875, byChapman and Hall.{{citation}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)| Successful | |
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