Philadelphia campaign
Part of thePennsylvanian front of theAmerican Revolutionary War
Washington and Lafayette at the Battle of Brandywine John Vanderlyn,c. 1825
Date July 1777–July 1778 Location New Jersey,Maryland,Delaware, andPennsylvania Result Inconclusive
Belligerents
United States 2nd Canadian Regiment Oneida[1]	Great Britain Hesse-Kassel
Commanders and leaders
George Washington Nathanael Greene Benjamin Lincoln Lord Stirling John Sullivan Anthony Wayne Marquis de Lafayette Henry Knox Moses Hazen	Sir William Howe Sir Henry Clinton Lord Cornwallis Charles Grey Wilhelm Knyphausen Carl Donop † Ludwig Wurmb
Strength
Around 20,000+	Around 16,000+

ThePhiladelphia campaign (1777–1778) was aBritish military campaign during theAmerican Revolutionary War designed to gain control ofPhiladelphia, theRevolutionary-era capital where theSecond Continental Congress convened, formed theContinental Army, and appointedGeorge Washington as its commander in 1775, and later authored and unanimously adopted theDeclaration of Independence the following year, on July 4, 1776, which formalized and escalated the war.

In the Philadelphia campaign, British GeneralWilliam Howe failed to draw theContinental Army underGeorge Washington into a battle inNorth Jersey. Howe then embarked his army on transports, and landed them at the northern end of theChesapeake Bay, where they began advancing north toward Philadelphia. Washington prepared defenses against Howe's movements atBrandywine Creek, but was flanked and beaten back in theBattle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777. After further skirmishes and maneuvers, Howe entered and occupied Philadelphia. Washington thenunsuccessfully attacked one of Howe's garrisons atGermantown prior to retreating toValley Forge for the winter, where he and 12,000 faced the harshest winter of the war, including insufficient food and clothing.

Howe's campaign was controversial because, while he succeeded in capturing the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia, he proceeded slowly and did not aid the concurrentcampaign of John Burgoyne further north, which ended in disaster for the British in theBattles of Saratoga and broughtFrance into the war. Howe resigned during the occupation of Philadelphia and was replaced by his second-in-command, General SirHenry Clinton.

In 1778, Clinton was ordered to evacuate Philadelphia and consolidate his troops inNew York City, in anticipation of a combined Franco-American attack there. Many Loyalists also left Philadelphia, fearing persecution. Washington's forces shadowed the withdrawingBritish Army until they clashed at theBattle of Monmouth, one of the war's largest battles.

At the end of the Philadelphia campaign in 1778, the two armies found themselves in roughly the same strategic positions that they had been in before Howe launched the attack on Philadelphia.

FollowingWilliam Howe's capture ofNew York City andGeorge Washington's success in the Battles ofTrenton andPrinceton, the two armies settled into an uneasy stalemate in the winter months of early 1777. While punctuated bynumerous skirmishes, the British Army continued to occupy outposts atNew Brunswick andPerth Amboy inNew Jersey.

In 1777, Howe proposed toGeorge Germain, the British civilian official responsible for war's conduct, that British expedition be launched with the goal of capturingPhiladelphia, the seat of the rebelliousSecond Continental Congress. Germain approved Howe's plan, although with fewer troops than Howe requested.^[2] He also approved plans byJohn Burgoyne for an expedition to "force his way toAlbany" fromMontreal.^[3] Germain's approval of Howe's expedition included the expectation that Howe would be able to assist Burgoyne, effecting a junction at Albany between the forces of Burgoyne and troops that Howe would send north fromNew York City.^[4]

Howe decided in early April 1777 against taking the British Army over land to Philadelphia throughNew Jersey since this route would entail having to cross of the broadDelaware River under hostile conditions and likely require the transportation or construction of necessary watercraft.^[5] Howe's plan, sent to Germain on April 2, isolated Burgoyne from any possibility of significant support, since Howe instead would take the British Army to Philadelphia by sea, and the New York garrison would be too small for any significant offensive operations up theHudson River to assist Burgoyne.^[5]

Washington realized that Howe "certainly ought in good policy to endeavor to Cooperate withGenl. Burgoyne" and was baffled why he did not do so.^[6] Washington at the time and historians ever since have wondered why Howe was not in place to come to the relief of Burgoyne, whose invasion army from Canada was surrounded and captured by the Americans in October. Historians agree that Lord Germain did a poor job in coordinating the two campaigns.^[7] Following Howe's capture of New York City and Washington's retreat across the Delaware River, Howe wrote to Germain on December 20, 1776, proposing an elaborate set of campaigns for 1777. These included operations to gain control of the Hudson River, expand operations from the base atNewport, Rhode Island, and take Philadelphia, the seat of the rebel Continental Congress. The latter Howe saw as attractive, since Washington was then just north of the city: Howe wrote that he was "persuaded the Principal Army should act offensively [against Philadelphia], where the enemy's chief strength lies."^[8] Germain acknowledged that this plan was particularly "well digested", but it called for more men than Germain was prepared to provide.^[9] After the setbacks in New Jersey, Howe in mid-January 1777 proposed operations against Philadelphia that included an overland expedition and a sea-based attack, thinking this might lead to a decisive victory over the Continental Army.^[10] This plan was developed to the extent that in April Howe's army was seen constructing pontoon bridges; Washington, lodged in his winter quarters atMorristown, New Jersey, thought they were for eventual use on the Delaware River.^[11] However, by mid-May Howe had apparently abandoned the idea of an overland expedition: "I propose to invade Pennsylvania by sea ... we must probably abandon the Jersies."^[12]

Howe's decision to not assist Burgoyne may have been rooted in his perception that Burgoyne would receive credit for a successful campaign, even if it required Howe's help. This would not help Howe's reputation as much as if the Philadelphia campaign succeeded. Historian John Alden notes the jealousies among various British leaders, saying, "It is likely that [Howe] was as jealous of Burgoyne as Burgoyne was of him and that he was not eager to do anything which might assist his junior up the ladder of military renown."^[13] Along the same lines Don Higginbotham concludes that in Howe's view, "[The Hudson River campaign] was Burgoyne's whole show, and consequently he [Howe] wanted little to do with it. With regard to Burgoyne's army, he would do only what was required of him (virtually nothing)."^[14] Howe himself wrote to Burgoyne on July 17: "My intention is for Pennsylvania, where I expect to meet Washington, but if he goes to the northward contrary to my expectations, and you can keep him at bay, be assured I shall soon be after him to relieve you."^[15] He sailed from New York not long after.

Washington'sContinental Army had been encamped primarily atMorristown, New Jersey, although there was a forward base atBound Brook, only a few miles from the nearest British outposts. In part as a retaliatory measure against the ongoing skirmishes, GeneralCharles Cornwallis executeda raid against that position in April 1777, in which he very nearly captured the outpost's commander,Benjamin Lincoln. In response to this raid, Washington moved his army forward to a strongly fortifiedposition at Middlebrook in theWatchung Mountains that commanded likely British land routes toward Philadelphia.

For reasons that are not entirely clear, Howe moved a sizable army toSomerset Court House, south ofNew Brunswick, New Jersey. He performed this move as a feint to draw Washington out from his strong position, but it failed since Washington refused to move his army out in force. Washington had intelligence that Howe had not brought watercraft or the necessary equipment for constructing them, so this move seemed unlikely to him to be a move toward the Delaware River. When Howe eventually withdrew his army back toward Perth Amboy, Washington did follow. Launching a lightning strike, Howe sent forces under Cornwallis in an attempt to cut Washington off from the high ground; this attempt was foiled in theBattle of Short Hills. Howe then withdrew his troops to Perth Amboy, embarked them on transports, and sailed out of New York harbor, destined for Philadelphia.

Washington did not know where Howe was going. Considering the possibility that Howe was again feinting, and would actually sail his army up the Hudson to join with Burgoyne, he remained near New York. Only when he received word that Howe's fleet had reached the mouth of the Delaware, did he need to consider the defense of Philadelphia. However, the fleet did not enter the Delaware, instead continuing south. Uncertain of Howe's goal, which could beCharleston, South Carolina, he considered moving north to assist in the defense of the Hudson, when he learned that the fleet had entered theChesapeake Bay. In August, he began moving his troops south to prepare the city's defenses. GeneralJohn Sullivan, who commanded the Continental Army's troops facingStaten Island, had, in order to capitalize on perceived weaknesses of the British position there following Howe's departure, attempted a raid on August 22, that failed with theBattle of Staten Island.

In late August, British Army GeneralHowe landed 15,000 troops at the northern end of theChesapeake Bay, about 55 miles (90 km) southwest ofPhiladelphia. Continental Army GeneralWashington positioned 11,000 men between Howe and Philadelphia but wasoutflanked and driven back at theBattle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777. The Continental Army suffered over 1,000 casualties, and the British lost about half that number.^[16]

TheContinental Congress was once again forced to abandon Philadelphia, relocating first toLancaster, Pennsylvania, and laterYork, Pennsylvania. British and Revolutionary forces maneuvered around each other west of Philadelphia for the next several days, clashing in minor encounters such as the abortiveBattle of the Clouds and the so-called "Paoli Massacre". On September 26, Howe finally outmaneuvered Washington and marched into Philadelphia unopposed. Capture of the rebel capital did not bring the end to the rebellion as the British thought it would. In 18th-century warfare, it was normal that the side who captured the opposing force's capital city won the war, but the Revolutionary War would continue for six more years until 1783 because of the rebels'unconventional warfare tactics.

After capturing Philadelphia, the British garrisoned about 9,000 troops inGermantown, five miles (8 km) north of Philadelphia. On October 2, the British capturedFort Billingsport, on theDelaware River inNew Jersey, to clear a line ofchevaux de frise obstacles in the river. The idea of placing those obstacles is attributed toBenjamin Franklin, and they were designed byRobert Smith.^[17] An undefended line had already been taken atMarcus Hook,^[18] and a third line was nearer Philadelphia, guarded byFort Mifflin andFort Mercer. Washingtonunsuccessfully attacked Germantown on October 4, and then retreated to watch and wait for the British to counterattack. Meanwhile, the British needed to open a supply route along the Delaware River to support their occupation of Philadelphia. After a prolonged defense of the river by CommodoreJohn Hazelwood and theContinental andPennsylvania Navies, the British finally secured the river by taking forts Mifflin and Mercer in mid-November, although Mercer was not taken until aftera humiliating repulse. In early December, Washington successfully repelled a series of probes by General Howe in theBattle of White Marsh.^[19]

Washington's problems at this time were not just with the British. In theConway Cabal, some politicians and officers were unhappy with Washington's performance in the campaign and began secretively discussing Washington's removal. Offended by the behind-the-scenes maneuvering, Washington laid the whole matter openly before Continental Congress. In response, his supporters rallied behind him, and Washington's leadership was reassured.^[20]

Washington and his army encamped atValley Forge in December 1777, about 20 miles (32 km) fromPhiladelphia, where they stayed for the next six months. Over the winter, 2,500 men (out of 10,000) died from disease and exposure. However, the army eventually emerged from Valley Forge in good order, thanks in part to a training program supervised byBaron von Steuben.^[21]

Meanwhile, there was a shakeup in the British command. General Howe resigned his command, and was replaced by Lieutenant GeneralSir Henry Clinton as commander-in-chief.France's entry into the war forced a change in British war strategy, and Clinton was ordered by the government to abandon Philadelphia and defendNew York City, now vulnerable to French naval power. As the British were preparing their withdrawal, Washington sent outLafayette on a reconnaissance mission. Lafayette narrowly escaped a British ambush at theBattle of Barren Hill. The British sent outa peace commission headed by theEarl of Carlisle, whose offers, which were made in June 1778 as Clinton was preparing to abandon Philadelphia, were rejected by theSecond Continental Congress.

Clinton shipped many Loyalists and most of his heavy equipment by sea to New York, and evacuated Philadelphia on June 18, after 266 days of British occupation.^[22] Washington's army shadowed Clinton's, and Washington successfully forced abattle at Monmouth Courthouse on June 28, the last major battle in the North. Washington's second-in-command, GeneralCharles Lee, who led the advance force of the army, ordered a controversial retreat early in the battle, allowing Clinton's army to regroup. By July, Clinton was in New York City, and Washington was again atWhite Plains, New York. Both armies were back where they had been two years earlier.

Shortly after the British arrived inNew York City, a French fleet arrived outside its harbor, leading to a flurry of action by both sides. The French and Americans decided to make an attempt on the British garrison atNewport, Rhode Island; this first attempt at coordinationwas a notable failure.

Under orders from London, Clinton reallocated some of his troops to theWest Indies, and began a program of coastal raiding fromChesapeake Bay toMassachusetts. In and around New York City, Clinton and Washington's respective armies watched each other and skirmished, including in two major battles, the 1779Battle of Stony Point and the 1780Battle of Connecticut Farms. Clinton considered again attacking the colonial capital ofPhiladelphia, but these attacks never came to fruition.

The British also began a wider frontier war organized fromQuebec City, using Loyalist and Native American allies. British and French forces engaged each other in the West Indies and in India beginning in 1778, and the 1779 entry ofSpain into the war widened the global aspects of the war even further.

In 1780, the British began a "southern strategy" to regain control of the rebelling colonies,^[23] with thecapture of Charleston, South Carolina. This effort would ultimatelyfail at Yorktown.

• During the Philadelphia Campaign the British had several maps drafted of theDelaware River, FortsMifflin andMercer and the greater Philadelphia area.
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• American Revolutionary War § British northern strategy fails, a description of the Philadelphia campaign's significance in theAmerican Revolutionary War
• List of American Revolutionary War battles

• Boatner, Mark Mayo, III.Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. New York: McKay, 1966; revised 1974.ISBN 0-8117-0578-1.
• Ferling, John E.The First of Men: A Life of George Washington (2010)
• Freeman, Douglas Southall.Washington (1968) ch 12–14
• Higginbotham, Don.The War of American Independence (1971)
• Ketchum, Richard M (1997).Saratoga: Turning Point of America's Revolutionary War. New York: Henry Holt.ISBN 978-0-8050-6123-9.OCLC 41397623.
• Martin, David G.The Philadelphia Campaign: June 1777–July 1778. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Books, 1993.ISBN 0-938289-19-5. 2003 Da Capo reprint,ISBN 0-306-81258-4.

• Anderson, Troyer Steele.The Command of the Howe Brothers During the American Revolution. New York and London, 1936.
• Buchanan, John.The Road to Valley Forge: How Washington Built the Army That Won the Revolution. Wiley, 2004.ISBN 0-471-44156-2.
• Harris, Michael C.The Philadelphia Campaign, 1777. Havertown, PA: Casemate Publishers, 2023.ISBN 978-1-63624-264-4.
• Jackson, John W.With the British Army in Philadelphia, 1777–1778. California: Presidio Press, 1979.ISBN 0-89141-057-0.
• McGuire, Thomas J.Battle of Paoli. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2000.
• McGuire, Thomas J.The Philadelphia Campaign, Vol. I: Brandywine and the Fall of Philadelphia. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2006.ISBN 978-0-8117-0178-5.
• McGuire, Thomas J.,The Philadelphia Campaign, Vol. II: Germantown and the Roads to Valley Forge. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2007.ISBN 978-0-8117-0206-5.
• Sullivan, Aaron.The Disaffected: Britain's Occupation of Philadelphia During the Revolutionary War. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019.
• Taaffe, Stephen R.The Philadelphia Campaign, 1777–1778. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2003.ISBN 0-7006-1267-X.

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Animated Maps

• 9/11/1777 – Battle of Brandywine
• 9/16/1777 – Battle of the Clouds
• 9/20/1777 – Battle of Paoli
• 10/4/1777 – Battle of Germantown
• Philadelphia Campaign – Overall

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