Thepharynx (pl.:pharynges) is the part of thethroat behind themouth andnasal cavity, and above theesophagus andtrachea (the tubes going down to thestomach and thelungs respectively). It is found in vertebrates and invertebrates, though its structure varies across species. The pharynx carries food to the esophagus and air to thelarynx. The flap of cartilage called theepiglottis stops food from entering the larynx.
In humans, the pharynx is part of thedigestive system and theconducting zone of therespiratory system. (The conducting zone—which also includes thenostrils of thenose, thelarynx,trachea,bronchi, andbronchioles—filters, warms, and moistens air and conducts it into thelungs).[1] The human pharynx is conventionally divided into three sections: thenasopharynx,oropharynx, andlaryngopharynx (hypopharynx).
In humans, two sets ofpharyngeal muscles form the pharynx and determine the shape of itslumen. They are arranged as an inner layer of longitudinal muscles, and an outer circular layerof pharyngeal constrictor muscles.
Upper respiratory system, with the nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx labeled at left
The upper portion of the pharynx, the nasopharynx, extends from the base of theskull to the upper surface of thesoft palate.[2] It includes the space between theinternal nares and the soft palate and lies above the oral cavity. Theadenoids, also known as the pharyngeal tonsils, arelymphoid tissue structures located in the posterior wall of the nasopharynx.Waldeyer's tonsillar ring is an annular arrangement of lymphoid tissue in both the nasopharynx and oropharynx. The nasopharynx is lined byrespiratory epithelium that is pseudostratified, columnar, and ciliated.
Polyps ormucus can obstruct the nasopharynx, as can congestion due to an upper respiratory infection. Theauditory tube, which connects the middle ear to the pharynx, opens into the nasopharynx at the pharyngeal opening of the auditory tube. The opening and closing of the auditory tubes serves to equalize the barometric pressure in the middle ear with that of the ambient atmosphere.
The anterior aspect of the nasopharynx communicates through thechoanae with the nasal cavities. On its lateral wall is thepharyngeal opening of the auditory tube, somewhat triangular in shape and bounded behind by a firm prominence, thetorus tubarius or cushion, caused by the medial end of the cartilage of the tube that elevates themucous membrane.Two folds arise from the cartilaginous opening:
thesalpingopharyngeal fold, a vertical fold of mucous membrane extending from the inferior part of the torus and containing thesalpingopharyngeus muscle.
thesalpingopalatine fold, a smaller fold, in front of the salpingopharyngeal fold, extending from the superior part of the torus to the palate and containing thesalpingopalatine muscle.[3] Thetensor veli palatini andlevator veli palatini are lateral to the fold and do not contribute.
The oropharynx lies behind the oral cavity, extending from theuvula to the level of thehyoid bone. It opens anteriorly, through theisthmus faucium, into the mouth, while in its lateral wall, between thepalatoglossal arch and thepalatopharyngeal arch, is thepalatine tonsil.[4] The anterior wall consists of the base of the tongue and theepiglottic vallecula; the lateral wall is made up of the tonsil, tonsillar fossa, and tonsillar (faucial) pillars; the superior wall consists of the inferior surface of the soft palate and the uvula. Because both food and air pass through the pharynx, a flap of connective tissue called theepiglottis closes over theglottis when food is swallowed to preventaspiration. The oropharynx is lined by non-keratinized squamous stratified epithelium.
The laryngopharynx, (Latin:pars laryngea pharyngis), also known ashypopharynx, is thecaudal part of the pharynx; it is the part of the throat that connects to the esophagus. It lies inferior to the epiglottis and extends to the location where this common pathway diverges into the respiratory (laryngeal) and digestive (esophageal) pathways. At that point, the laryngopharynx is continuous with the esophagus posteriorly. The esophagus conducts food and fluids to the stomach; air enters the larynx anteriorly. During swallowing, food has the "right of way", and air passage temporarily stops. Corresponding roughly to the area located between the 4th and 6thcervical vertebrae, the superior boundary of the laryngopharynx is at the level of thehyoid bone. The laryngopharynx includes three major sites: thepyriform sinus, postcricoid area, and the posterior pharyngeal wall. Like the oropharynx above it, the laryngopharynx serves as a passageway for food and air and is lined with astratified squamous epithelium. It is innervated by thepharyngeal plexus and by therecurrent laryngeal nerve.
The vascular supply to the laryngopharynx includes thesuperior thyroid artery, thelingual artery and theascending pharyngeal artery. The primary neural supply is from both thevagus andglossopharyngeal nerves. The vagus nerve provides anauricular branch also termed "Arnold's nerve" which also supplies the external auditory canal, thus laryngopharyngeal cancer can result in referredear pain. This nerve is also responsible for theear-cough reflex in which stimulation of the ear canal results in a person coughing.
The pharynx moves food from the mouth to the esophagus. It also moves air from thenasal andoral cavities to thelarynx. It is also used in human speech, aspharyngeal consonants are articulated here, and it acts as aresonating chamber during phonation.
Waldeyer's tonsillar ring is an anatomical term collectively describing the annular arrangement of lymphoid tissue in the pharynx. Waldeyer's ring circumscribes the naso and oropharynx, with some of its tonsillar tissue located above and some below the soft palate (and to the back of the oral cavity). It is believed that Waldeyer's ring prevents the invasion of microorganisms from going into the air and food passages and this helps in the defense mechanism of the respiratory and alimentary systems.[7]
All vertebrates have a pharynx, used in both feeding and respiration. The pharynx arises during development in all vertebrates through a series of six or more outpocketings on the lateral sides of the head. These outpocketings arepharyngeal arches, and they give rise to a number of different structures in the skeletal, muscular, and circulatory systems. The structure of the pharynx varies across the vertebrates. It differs in dogs, horses, and ruminants. In dogs, a single duct connects the nasopharynx to the nasal cavity. The tonsils are a compact mass that points away from the lumen of the pharynx. In the horse, the auditory tube opens into the guttural pouch and the tonsils are diffuse and raised slightly. Horses are unable to breathe through the mouth as the free apex of the rostral epiglottis lies dorsal to the soft palate in a normal horse. Inruminants, the tonsils are a compact mass that points towards the lumen of the pharynx.
Pharyngeal arches are characteristic features of vertebrates whose origin can be traced back throughchordates to basaldeuterostomes who also share endodermal outpocketings of the pharyngeal apparatus. Similar patterns of gene expression can be detected in the developing pharynx ofamphioxi andhemichordates. However, the vertebrate pharynx is unique in that it gives rise toendoskeletal support through the contribution ofneural crest cells.[10]
An illustration of the pharyngeal jaws of a moray eel
Pharyngeal jaws are a "second set" ofjaws contained within the pharynx of many species of fish, distinct from the primary (oral) jaws. Pharyngeal jaws have been studied inmoray eels where their specific action is noted. When the moray bitesprey, it first bites normally with its oral jaws, capturing the prey. Immediately thereafter, the pharyngeal jaws are brought forward and bite down on the prey to grip it; they then retract, pulling the prey down the eel's esophagus, allowing it to be swallowed.[11]
The "pharynx" of thenematode worm is a muscular food pump in the head, triangular in cross-section, that grinds food and transports it directly to the intestines. A one-way valve connects the pharynx to the excretory canal.
Everted pharynx ofAlitta virens (also known asNereis virens), lateral view
^Simkins CS (November 1943). "Functional anatomy of the Eustachian tube".Archives of Otolaryngology–Head & Neck Surgery.38 (5): 479.doi:10.1001/archotol.1943.00670040495009.The anterior fold of the torus is made by a few delicate fibers of muscle which [...] I have referred to the muscle as the salpingopalatine muscle.
^Elzinga RJ (October 1998). "Microspines in the alimentary canal of arthropoda, onychophora, annelida".International Journal of Insect Morphology and Embryology.27 (4): 341.doi:10.1016/S0020-7322(98)00027-0.
^Morse MP (July 1981). "Meiopriapulus fijiensis n. gen., n. sp.: An Interstitial Priapulid from coarse sand in Fiji".Transactions of the American Microscopical Society.100 (3):239–252.doi:10.2307/3225549.JSTOR3225549.
General
Pharynx, Stedman's Online Medical Dictionary at Lippincott Williams and Wilkins
Human Anatomy and Physiology Elaine N. Marieb and Katja Hoehn, Seventh Edition.
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