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| Theravāda Buddhism |
ThePetavatthu (lit. 'Ghost Stories')[1] is aTheravada Buddhistscripture, included in theMinor Collection (Khuddaka Nikaya) of thePali Canon'sSutta Pitaka. It ostensibly reports stories about and conversations amongthe Buddha andhis disciples, and it dates to about 300 BC at the earliest.[2] It is composed of 51 verse narratives describing specifically how the effects of bad acts can lead to rebirth into the unhappy world ofpetas (ghosts) in the doctrine ofkamma.[3] More importantly, it details how meritorious actions by the living can benefit such suffering beings.[2]
The scripture also includes the story ofMahā Moggallāna helpingSāriputta's mother from her previous life in thehungry ghost realm, his discussions withhungry ghosts, and his understanding of the realm.[4][5][6] Before being born as a ghost, Sāriputta's mother was born in the hell realm. It also includes a story of howmaking offerings to the monks as a form ofmerit-making to increase the chance of a hungry ghost being reborn as a higher being.
The scripture gave prominence to the doctrine that giving alms to monks may benefit the ghosts of one's relatives seen in theHungry Ghost Festival and ceremonies conducted in Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Laos.[7] While regarded by scholars as a later text with relatively little doctrinal content or literary merit, the Petavatthu and a similar text, theVimānavatthu, became popular sources for sermons due to the narratives on the effects of kamma contained in their commentaries.[8]
TheSāriputta story of the Petavatthu was adapted in 6th-century China to form theMahayanaYulanpen Sutra, which makes Mulian (i.e., Maudgalyāyana) its hero. Similar to its effect inSouth andSoutheast Asia, the dissemination of the story led to the spread of aGhost Festival throughout theSinosphere.[9]
A version of the Petavatthu's Maudgalyāyana story separately became a Chinese legend or folk tale known as "Mulian Rescues His Mother". However, instead of being reborn in thehungry ghost realm (peta) before finally being helped by Moggallāna, the text contains the story of Sāriputta's mother being reborn in a hell realm. This version of the story is considered a misunderstanding from the Theravādin point of view.[10]
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