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Orders of magnitude (length)

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Comparison of a wide range of lengths
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Objects of sizes in different order of magnitude (at inconsistent intervals)
Graphical overview of sizes

The following are examples oforders of magnitude for differentlengths.

Overview

ScaleRange (m)UnitExample items
<
Subatomic0Gravitational singularity
10−3610−33PFixed value (not a range).Quantum foam,string
10−1810−15amProton,neutron,pion
Atomic to cellular10−1510−12fmAtomic nucleus
10−1210−9pmWavelength ofgamma rays andX-rays,hydrogen atom
10−910−6nmDNAhelix,virus, wavelength ofoptical spectrum, transistors used in CPUs
Cellular to human10−610−3μmBacterium,fog water droplet, humanhair's diameter[note 1]
10−31mmMosquito,golf ball,domestic cat,violin,football
Human to astronomical1103mPiano,human,automobile,sperm whale,football field,Eiffel Tower
103106kmMount Everest, length ofPanama Canal andTrans-Siberian Railway, largerasteroid
Astronomical106109MmTheMoon, Earth, onelight-second
1091012GmSun, onelight-minute,Earth's orbit
10121015TmOrbits ofouter planets,Solar System
10151018PmAlight-year, the distance toProxima Centauri
10181021EmGalactic arm
10211024ZmMilky Way, distance toAndromeda Galaxy
10241027YmHuge-LQG,Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall,Observable universe

Detailed list

To help compare different orders of magnitude, the following list describes various lengths between1.6×1035{\displaystyle 1.6\times 10^{-35}} meters and101010122{\displaystyle 10^{10^{10^{122}}}}meters.

Subatomic scale

Factor (m)MultipleValueItem
000Singularity
10−351Planck length0.0000162 qm Planck length; typical scale of hypotheticalloop quantum gravity or size of a hypotheticalstring and ofbranes; according tostring theory, lengths smaller than this do not make anyphysical sense.[1]Quantum foam is thought to exist at this scale.
10−241 yoctometer (ym)142 ymEffectivecross section radius of 1MeVneutrinos[2]
10−211 zeptometer (zm)Preons, hypothetical particles proposed as subcomponents of quarks and leptons; the upper bound for the width of acosmic string in string theory
7 zmEffective cross section radius of high-energyneutrinos[3]
310 zmDe Broglie wavelength ofprotons at theLarge Hadron Collider (4 TeV as of 2012[update])
10−181 attometer (am)Upper limit for the size ofquarks andelectrons
Sensitivity of theLIGO detector forgravitational waves[4]
Upper bound of the typical size range for "fundamentalstrings"[1]
10−1710 amRange of theweak force
10−16100 am850 amApproximate proton radius[5]

Atomic to cellular scale

Factor (m)MultipleValueItem
10−151 femtometer (fm, fermi)1 fmApproximate limit of thegluon-mediatedcolor force betweenquarks[6][7]
1.5 fmEffective cross section radius of an 11 MeVproton[8]
2.81794 fmClassical electron radius[9]
3 fmApproximate limit of themeson-mediatednuclear binding force[6][7]
750 to 822.25 fmLongestwavelength ofgamma rays
10−121 picometer (pm)1.75 to 15 fmDiameter range of theatomic nucleus[1][10]
1 pmDistance betweenatomic nuclei in awhite dwarf
2.4 pmCompton wavelength ofelectron
5 pmWavelength of shortestX-rays
10−1110 pm28 pmRadius ofhelium atom
53 pmBohr radius (radius of ahydrogen atom)
10−10100 pm100 pm1ångström (alsocovalent radius ofsulfur atom[11])
154 pmLength of a typicalcovalent bond (C–C)
280 pmAverage size of thewater molecule (actual lengths may vary)
500 pmWidth ofproteinα helix
10−91 nanometer (nm)1 nmDiameter of acarbon nanotube[12] Diameter of smallest transistor gate (as of 2016)[13]
2 nmDiameter of theDNA helix[14]
2.5 nmSmallestmicroprocessortransistorgate oxide thickness (as of January 2007[update])[citation needed]
3.4 nmLength of aDNAturn (10bp)[15]
6–10 nmThickness ofcell membrane
10−810 nm10 nmUpper range of thickness ofcell wall inGram-negativebacteria[16]
10 nmAs of 2016[update], the10 nanometer was the smallestsemiconductor device fabricationnode[17]
40 nmExtremeultraviolet wavelength
50 nmFlying height of thehead of ahard disk[18]
10−7100 nm121.6 nmWavelength of theLyman-alpha line[19]
120 nmTypical diameter of thehuman immunodeficiency virus (HIV)[20]
400–700 nmApproximate wavelength range ofvisible light[21]


Cellular to human scale

Factor (m)MultipleValueItem
10−61 micrometer (μm)

(also called 1 micron)

1–4 μmTypical length of a bacterium[22]
4 μmTypical diameter ofspider silk[23]
7 μmTypical size of ared blood cell[24]
10−510 μm10 μmTypical size of a fog, mist, or cloud water droplet
10 μmWidth oftransistors in theIntel 4004, the world's first commercialmicroprocessor
12 μmWidth ofacrylic fiber
17–181 μmWidth range of human hair[25]
10−4100 μm340 μmSize of apixel on a 17-inch monitor with a resolution of 1024×768
560 μmThickness of the central area of a humancornea[26]
750 μmMaximum diameter ofThiomargarita namibiensis, the second largest bacterium ever discovered
10−31 millimeter (mm)~5 mmLength of an averageflea is 1–10 mm (usually <5 mm)[27]
2.54 mmOne-tenth inch; distance between pins inDIP (dual-inline-package) electronic components
5.70 mmDiameter of the projectile in5.56×45mm NATO ammunition
10−21 centimeter (cm)20 mmApproximate width of an adult humanfinger
54 mm × 86 mmDimensions of acredit card, according to theISO/IEC 7810 ID-1 standard
73–75 mmDiameter of abaseball, according toMajor League Baseball guidelines[28]
10−11 decimeter (dm)120 mmDiameter of acompact disc
660 mmLength of the longestpine cones, produced by thesugar pine[29]
900 mmAverage length of arapier, afencing sword[30]

Human to astronomical scale

Planets of the Solar System to scale
Factor (m)MultipleValueItem
1 (100)1 meter (m)1 m (exactly)Since 2019, defined as the length of the path travelled bylight in a vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of asecond, where the second is defined by a hyperfine transition frequency ofcaesium.
2.72 mHeight ofRobert Wadlow, tallest-known human.[31]
8.38 mLength of a London bus (AEC Routemaster)
1011 decameter (dam)33 mLength of the longest-knownblue whale[32]
52 mHeight of theNiagara Falls[33]
93.47 mHeight of theStatue of Liberty
1021 hectometer (hm)105 mLength of a typicalfootball field
137 m (147 m)Height (present and original) of theGreat Pyramid of Giza
300 mHeight of theEiffel Tower, one of the famous monuments of Paris
979 mHeight of theSalto Angel, the world's highest free-falling waterfall (Venezuela)
1031 kilometer (km)2.3 kmLength of theThree Gorges Dam, the largestdam in the world[34][35]
3.1 kmNarrowest width of theStrait of Messina, separatingItaly andSicily
8.848 kmHeight ofMount Everest, the highest mountain on Earth
10410 km10.9 kmDepth of theChallenger Deep in theMariana Trench, the deepest-known point on Earth's surface
27 kmCircumference of theLarge Hadron Collider, as of May 2010[update] the largest and highest energyparticle accelerator
42.195 kmLength of amarathon
105100 km100 kmThe distance theIAU considers to be the limit tospace, called theKarman line
163 kmLength of theSuez Canal, connecting theMediterranean Sea to theRed Sea
491 kmLength of thePyrenees, themountain range separatingSpain andFrance
600kmThermosphere height
974.6 kmGreatest diameter of the dwarf planetCeres.[36]
1061 megameter (Mm)2.38 MmDiameter of dwarf planetPluto, formerly the smallestplanet category[note 2] in the Solar System
3.48 MmDiameter of theMoon
5.2 MmTypical distance covered by the winner of the24 Hours of Le Mans automobile endurance race
6.259 MmLength of theGreat Wall of China
6.371 MmAverageradius of Earth
6.378 MmEquatorial radius of Earth
6.6 MmApproximate length of the two longest rivers, theNile and theAmazon
7.821 MmLength of theTrans-Canada Highway
9.288 MmLength of theTrans-Siberian Railway, longest in the world

Astronomical scale

Factor (m)MultipleValueItem
10710 Mm12.756 MmEquatorial diameter of Earth
20.004 MmLength of ameridian on Earth (distance between Earth's poles along the surface)[37]
40.075 MmLength of Earth'sequator
108100 Mm142.984 MmDiameter ofJupiter
299.792 MmDistance traveled by light in vacuum in one second (alight-second, exactly 299,792,458 m by definition of thespeed of light)
384.4 MmMoon's orbital distance from Earth
1091 gigameter (Gm)1.39 GmDiameter of theSun
5.15 GmGreatest mileage ever recorded by a car (3.2 million miles by a 1966Volvo P-1800S)[38]
101010 Gm18 GmApproximately onelight-minute
1011100 Gm150 Gm1astronomical unit (au); mean distance between Earth and Sun
10121 terameter (Tm)1.3 TmOptical diameter ofBetelgeuse
1.4 TmOrbital distance ofSaturn from Sun
2 TmEstimated optical diameter ofVY Canis Majoris, one of thelargest-known stars
5.9 TmOrbital distance of Pluto from the Sun
~ 7.5 TmOuter boundary of theKuiper belt
101310 TmDiameter of theSolar System as a whole[1]
16.09 TmTotal length of DNA molecules in all cells of an adult human body[39]
21.49 TmDistance of theVoyager 1 spacecraft from Sun (as of Oct 2018[update]), the farthest man-made object so far[40]
62.03 TmEstimated radius of theevent horizon of thesupermassive black hole inNGC 4889, the largest-knownblack hole to date
1014100 Tm180 TmSize of thedebris disk around the star51 Pegasi[41]
10151 petameter (Pm)~7.5 PmSupposed outer boundary of theOort cloud (~ 50,000 au)
9.461 PmDistance traveled by light in vacuum in one year; at its current speed,Voyager 1 would need 17,500 years to travel this distance
101610 Pm30.857 Pm1parsec
39.9 PmDistance to nearest star (Proxima Centauri)
41.3 PmAs of March 2013, distance to nearest discoveredextrasolar planet (Alpha Centauri Bc)
1017100 Pm193 PmAs of October 2010, distance to nearest discovered extrasolar planet with potential to support life as presently defined by science (Gliese 581 d)
615 PmApproximate radius of humanity's radio bubble, caused by high-power TV broadcasts leaking through the atmosphere into outer space
10181 exameter (Em)1.9 EmDistance to nearbysolar twin (HIP 56948), a star with properties virtually identical to the Sun[42]
101910 Em9.46 EmAverage thickness ofMilky Way Galaxy[43] (1,000 to 3,000 ly by21 cm observations[44])
1020100 Em113.5 EmThickness ofMilky Way Galaxy's gaseous disk[45]
10211 zettameter (Zm)
1.54 ZmDistance toSN 1987A, the most recent naked eye supernova
1.62 ZmDistance to theLarge Magellanic Cloud (adwarf galaxyorbiting theMilky Way)
1.66 ZmDistance to theSmall Magellanic Cloud (another dwarf galaxy orbiting the Milky Way)
1.9 ZmDiameter of galactic disk ofMilky Way Galaxy[46][47][48][49]
6.15 ZmDiameter of the low surface brightness disc halo of the giant spiral galaxyMalin 1
102210 Zm13.25 ZmRadius of the diffuse stellar halo ofIC 1101, one of the largest-known galaxies
24 ZmDistance toAndromeda Galaxy
30.857 Zm1megaparsec
50 ZmDiameter ofLocal Group ofgalaxies
1023100 Zm300–600 ZmDistance toVirgo cluster ofgalaxies
10241 yottameter (Ym)2.19 YmDiameter of theLocal Supercluster and the largest voids and filaments
2.8 YmEnd of Greatness
~5 YmDiameter of theHorologium Supercluster[50]
9.461 YmDiameter of thePisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex, the supercluster complex which includes Earth
102510 Ym13 YmLength of theSloan Great Wall, a giant wall of galaxies (galactic filament)[51]
30.857 Ym1gigaparsec
37.84 YmLength of theHuge-LQG, a group of 73quasars
1026100 Ym95 YmEstimatedlight travel distance to certainquasars. Length of theHercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, a colossal wall of galaxies, the largest and the most massive structure in the observable universe as of 2014
127 YmEstimated light travel distance toGN-z11, themost distant object ever observed
870 YmApproximate diameter (comoving distance) of thevisible universe[1]
10271 Rm1.2 RmLower bound of the (possibly infinite) radius of the universe, if it is a3-sphere, according to one estimate using theWMAP data at 95% confidence[52] It equivalently implies that there are at minimum 21particle horizon-sized volumes in the universe.
1010115{\displaystyle 10^{10^{115}}}[note 3]1010115{\displaystyle 10^{10^{115}}} m1010115{\displaystyle 10^{10^{115}}} mAccording to the laws of probability, the distance one must travel until one encounters a volume of space identical to ourobservable universe with conditions identical to our own.[53]
101010122{\displaystyle 10^{10^{10^{122}}}}101010122{\displaystyle 10^{10^{10^{122}}}} m101010122{\displaystyle 10^{10^{10^{122}}}} mMaximum size of universe aftercosmological inflation, implied by one resolution of theNo-Boundary Proposal[54]

1 quectometer and less

Thequectometre (SI symbol:qm) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to10−30 metres. To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listslengths shorter than 10−30m (1 qm).

  • 1.6 × 10−5 quectometers (1.6 × 10−35 meters) – thePlanck length (Measures of distance shorter than this do not make physical sense, according to current theories ofphysics.)
  • 1 qm – 1 quectometer, the smallest named subdivision of the meter in theSI base unit of length, one nonillionth of a meter.[55]

1 rontometer

Therontometre (SI symbol:rm) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to10−27 metres.

  • 1 rm – 1 rontometer, a subdivision of the meter in theSI base unit of length, one octillionth of a meter.[55]

10 rontometers

1 yoctometer

Theyoctometre (SI symbol:ym) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to10−24 metres.

1 zeptometer

Thezeptometre (SI symbol:zm) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to10−21 metres. To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listslengths between 10−21m and 10−20 m (1 zm and 10 zm).

10 zeptometers

To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listslengths between 10−20m and 10−19 m (10zm and 100 zm).

100 zeptometers

To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−19m and 10−18 m (100zm and 1am).

1 attometer

Theattometre (SI symbol:am) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to10−18 metres. To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listslengths between 10−18m and 10−17 m (1 am and 10 am).

10 attometers

To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listslengths between 10−17m and 10−16 m (10am and 100 am).

100 attometers

To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−16m and 10−15 m (100am and 1fm).

  • 831 am – approximate proton radius[59][60]

1 femtometer (or 1 fermi)

Thefemtometre (SI symbol:fm) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to10−15 metres. Inparticle physics, this unit is sometimes called afermi, also with abbreviation "fm". To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listslengths between 10−15meters and 10−14 meters (1 femtometer and 10 fm).

10 femtometers

To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listslengths between 10−14m and 10−13 m (10fm and 100 fm).

100 femtometers

To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−13m and 10−12 m (100fm and 1pm).

  • 570 fm – typical distance from the atomic nucleus of the two innermost electrons (electrons in the1s shell) in theuranium atom, the heaviest naturally-occurring atom

1 picometer

Thepicometre (SI symbol:pm) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to10−12 metres (1/1000000000000 m = 0.000000000001 m). To help compare differentorders of magnitude this section listslengths between 10−12 and 10−11 m (1 pm and 10 pm).

10 picometers

To help compare differentorders of magnitude this section listslengths between 10−11 and 10−10m (10 pm and 100 pm).

100 picometers

To help compare differentorders of magnitude this section listslengths between 10−10 and 10−9m (100 pm and 1 nm; 1 Å and 10 Å).

1 nanometer

Thenanometre (SI symbol:nm) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to10−9 metres (1/1000000000 m = 0.000000001 m). To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−9 and 10−8 m (1 nm and 10 nm).

10 nanometers

Comparison of sizes of semiconductor manufacturing process nodes with some microscopic objects and visible light wavelengths. At this scale, thewidth of a human hair is about 10 times that of the image.[70]

To help compare differentorders of magnitude this section listslengths between 10−8 and 10−7m (10 nm and 100 nm).

100 nanometers

Comparison of sizes of semiconductor manufacturing process nodes with some microscopic objects and visible light wavelengths. At this scale, thewidth of a human hair is about 10 times that of the image.[78]

To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listslengths between 10−7 and 10−6m (100nm and 1 μm).

  • 100 nm – greatest particle size that can fit through asurgical mask[79]
  • 100 nm – 90% of particles in woodsmoke are smaller than this.[citation needed]
  • 120 nm – greatest particle size that can fit through aULPA filter[80]
  • 120 nm – diameter of ahuman immunodeficiency virus (HIV)[81]
  • 120 nm – approximate diameter ofSARS-CoV-2[82]
  • 125 nm – standard depth of pits oncompact discs (width: 500 nm, length: 850 nm to 3.5 μm)
  • 180 nm – typical length of therabies virus
  • 200 nm – typical size of aMycoplasma bacterium, among the smallest bacteria
  • 300 nm – greatest particle size that can fit through aHEPA (high efficiency particulate air) filter (N100 removes up to 99.97% at 300 nm, N95 removes up to 95% at 300 nm)[83]
  • 300–400 nm – nearultraviolet wavelength
  • 400–420 nm – wavelength ofviolet light (seeColor andVisible spectrum)
  • 420–440 nm – wavelength ofindigo light
  • 440–500 nm – wavelength ofblue light
  • 500–520 nm – wavelength ofcyan light
  • 520–565 nm – wavelength ofgreen light
  • 565–590 nm – wavelength ofyellow light
  • 590–625 nm – wavelength oforange light
  • 625–700 nm – wavelength ofred light
  • 700–1.4 μm – wavelength ofnear-infrared radiation

1 micrometer (or 1 micron)

The silk for a spider's web is 5–7 μm (0.00020–0.00028 in) wide.

Themicrometre (SI symbol:μm) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to10−6 metres (1/1000000 m = 0.000001 m). To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section lists some items with lengths between 10−6 and 10−5 m (between 1 and 10micrometers, or μm).

10 micrometers

Fog particles are around 10–50 μm (0.00039–0.00197 in) long.

To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listslengths between 10−5m and 10−4 m (10μm and 100 μm).

100 micrometers

Aparamecium is around 300 μm (0.012 in) long.

To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listslengths between 10−4m and 10−3 m (100 μm and 1 mm). The termmyriometer (abbr. mom, equivalent to 100 micrometers; frequently confused with themyriameter, 10 kilometers)[97] is deprecated; the decimal metric prefixmyrio-[98] is obsolete[99][100][101] and was not included among theprefixes when theInternational System of Units was introduced in 1960.

1 millimeter

An averagered ant is about 5 mm (0.20 in) long.
"1mm" redirects here. For the Perfume song, seeLevel3 (Perfume album). For the measure, seemillimetre.

Themillimetre (SI symbol:mm) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to10−3 metres (1/1000 m = 0.001 m). To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−3 m and 10−2 m (1 mm and 1 cm).

  • 1.0 mm – 1/1,000 of a meter
  • 1.0 mm – 0.03937inches or 5/127 (exactly)
  • 1.0 mm – side of asquare of area1 mm²
  • 1.0 mm – diameter of a pinhead
  • 1.5 mm – average length of a flea[27]
  • 2.54 mm – distance between pins on olddual in-line package (DIP) electronic components
  • 5 mm – length of an average red ant
  • 5 mm – diameter of an average grain of rice
  • 5.56×45mm NATO – standard ammunition size
  • 6 mm – approximate width of a pencil
  • 7 mm – length of aPaedophryne amauensis, the smallest-known vertebrate[108]
  • 7.1 mm – length of a sunflower seed
  • 7.62×51mm NATO – common military ammunition size[109]
  • 8 mm – width of old-format home movie film
  • 8 mm – length of aPaedocypris progenetica, the smallest-known fish[110]

1 centimeter

An average humanfingernail is 1 cm (0.39 in) wide
"10 mm" redirects here. For firearms cartridges, see10 mm calibre.

Thecentimetre (SI symbol:cm) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to10−2 metres (1/100 m = 0.01 m). To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−2 m and 10−1 m (1 cm and 1 dm).

  • 1 cm – 10millimeters
  • 1 cm – 0.39inches
  • 1 cm – edge of asquare of area1 cm2
  • 1 cm – edge of acube of volume1 mL
  • 1 cm – length of a coffee bean
  • 1 cm – approximate width of average fingernail
  • 1.2 cm – length of a bee
  • 1.2 cm – diameter of a die
  • 1.5 cm – length of a very large mosquito
  • 1.6 cm – length of a Jaragua Sphaero, a very small reptile
  • 1.7 cm – length of a Thorius arboreus, the smallest salamander[111]
  • 2 cm – approximate width of an adult human finger
  • 2.54 cm – 1 inch
  • 3.08568 cm – 1attoparsec
  • 3.4 cm – length of a quail egg[112]
  • 3.5 cm – width of film commonly used in motion pictures and still photography
  • 3.78 cm – amount of distance the Moon moves away from Earth each year[113]
  • 4.3 cm – minimum diameter of a golf ball[114]
  • 5 cm – usual diameter of a chicken egg
  • 5 cm – height of a hummingbird, the smallest-known bird
  • 5.08 cm – 2inches,
  • 5.5 × 5.5 × 5.5 cm – dimensions of a 3x3x3 Rubik's cube
  • 6.1 cm – average height of an apple
  • 7.3–7.5 cm – diameter of a baseball[28]
  • 8.6 cm × 5.4 cm – dimensions of a standard credit card (also called CR80)[115][116]
  • 9 cm – length of a speckled padloper, the smallest-known turtle

1 decimeter

"10cm" redirects here. For the band, see10cm (band).
An adult human foot is about 28 cm (11 in) long.

Thedecimetre (SI symbol:dm) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to10−1 metres (1/10 m = 0.1 m). To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10centimeters and 100 centimeters (10−1 meter and 1 meter).

Conversions

10 centimeters (abbreviated to 10 cm) is equal to:

Wavelengths

Human-defined scales and structures

  • 10.16 cm = 1.016 dm – 1hand used in measuring height of horses (4 inches)
  • 12 cm = 1.2 dm – diameter of a compact disc (CD) (= 120 mm)
  • 15 cm = 1.5 dm – length of aBic pen with cap on
  • 22 cm = 2.2 dm – diameter of a typical association football (soccer ball)
  • 30 cm = 3 dm – typical school-use ruler length (= 300 mm)
  • 30.48 cm = 3.048 dm – 1foot (measure)
  • 60 cm = 6 dm – standard depth (front to back) of a domestic kitchen worktop in Europe (= 600 mm)
  • 90 cm = 9 dm – average length of a rapier, a fencing sword[30]
  • 91.44 cm = 9.144 dm – oneyard (measure)

Nature

  • 10 cm = 1 dm – diameter of the humancervix upon entering the second stage of labour
  • 11 cm = 1.1 dm – length of an average potato in the US
  • 13 cm = 1.3 dm – body length of aGoliath birdeater
  • 15 cm = 1.5 dm – approximate size of largest beetle species
  • 19 cm = 1.9 dm – length of a banana
  • 26.3 cm = 2.6 dm – length of average male human foot
  • 29.98 cm = 2.998 dm – distance light in vacuum travels in onenanosecond
  • 30 cm = 3.0 dm – maximum leg length of a Goliath birdeater
  • 31 cm = 3.1 dm – wingspan of largest butterfly speciesOrnithoptera alexandrae
  • 32 cm – length of theGoliath frog, the world's largest frog
  • 46 cm = 4.6 dm – length of an average domestic cat
  • 50 to 65 cm = 5–6.5 dm – a coati's tail
  • 66 cm = 6.6 dm – length of the longest pine cones (produced by the sugar pine[117])

Astronomical

  • 84 cm = 8.4 dm – approximate diameter of 2008 TS26, a meteoroid

1 meter

"1m" redirects here. For other uses, see1M.
Leonardo da Vinci drew theVitruvian Man within a square of side 1.83 m (6 ft 0 in) and a circle about 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) in radius.

To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between onemeter and ten meters.Light, in vacuum, travels 1 meter in1299,792,458, or 3.3356409519815E-9 of a second.

Conversions

1meter is:

Human-defined scales and structures

  • 1 m – approximate height of the top part of a doorknob on a door
  • 1 m – diameter of a very largebeach ball
  • 1.29 m – length of theCross Island Chapel, the smallest church in the world
  • 1.4 m – length of aPeel P50, the world's smallest car
  • 1.435 m – standard gauge of railway track used by about 60% of railways in the world = 4 ft 812 in
  • 2.5 m – distance from the floor to the ceiling in an average residential house[118]
  • 2.7 m – length of theStarr Bumble Bee II, the smallest plane
  • 2.77–3.44 m – wavelength of the broadcast radio FM band 87–108 MHz
  • 3.05 m – the length of an oldMini
  • 8 m – length of theTsar Bomba, the largest bomb ever detonated
  • 8.38 m – the length of a London Bus (AEC Routemaster)

Sports

  • 2.44 m – height of an association football goal[119]
  • 2.45 m – highest high jump by a human (Javier Sotomayor)[120]
  • 3.05 m – (10 feet) height of the basket in basketball
  • 8.95 m – longest long jump by a human (Mike Powell)[121]

Nature

Astronomical

  • 3–6 m – approximate diameter of2003 SQ222, a meteoroid
  • 4.1 m – diameter of2008 TC3, a small asteroid that flew into the Earth's atmosphere on 7 October 2008[124]

1 decameter

Ablue whale has been measured as 33 m (108 ft) long; this drawing compares its length to that of a human diver and a dolphin.

Thedecametre (SI symbol:dam) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to 10 meters (101 m). To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10 and 100 meters.

Conversions

10 meters (very rarely termed adecameter which is abbreviated as dam) is equal to:

Human-defined scales and structures

Sports

  • 11 meters – approximate width of a doubles tennis court
  • 15 meters – width of a standard FIBA basketball court
  • 15.24 meters – width of an NBA basketball court (50 feet)
  • 18.44 meters – distance between the front of the pitcher's rubber and the rear point of home plate on a baseball field (60 feet, 6 inches)[125]
  • 20 meters – length of cricket pitch (22 yards)[126]
  • 27.43 meters – distance between bases on a baseball field (90 feet)
  • 28 meters – length of a standard FIBA basketball court
  • 28.65 meters – length of an NBA basketball court (94 feet)
  • 49 meters – width of an American football field (5313 yards)
  • 59.436 meters – width of a Canadian football field (65 yards)
  • 70 meters – typical width of an association football field
  • 91 meters – length of an American football field (100 yards, measured between the goal lines)

Nature

  • 10 meters – average length of human digestive tract[citation needed]
  • 12 meters – height of asaguaro cactus
  • 12 meters – length of awhale shark, largest living fish
  • 12 meters – wingspan of aQuetzalcoatlus, a pterosaur
  • 12.8 meters – length of aTitanoboa, the largest snake to have ever lived
  • 13 meters – length of agiant squid andcolossal squid, the largest living invertebrates
  • 15 meters – approximate distance the tropical circles of latitude are moving towards the equator and the polar circles are moving towards the poles each year due to a natural, gradual decrease in the Earth's axial tilt
  • 16 meters – length of asperm whale, the largest toothed whale
  • 18 meters – height of aSauroposeidon, the tallest-known dinosaur
  • 20 meters – length of aLeedsichthys, the largest-known fish to have lived
  • 21 meters – height ofHigh Force waterfall in England
  • 30.5 meters – length of thelion's mane jellyfish, the largest jellyfish in the world
  • 33 meters – length of ablue whale,[127] the largest animal on earth, living or extinct, in terms of mass
  • 39 meters – length of aSupersaurus, the longest-known dinosaur and longest vertebrate[128]
  • 52 meters – height ofNiagara Falls[33]
  • 55 meters – length of abootlace worm, the longest-known animal[129]
  • 66 meters – highest possible sea level rise due to a complete melting of all ice on Earth
  • 83 meters – height of awestern hemlock
  • 84 meters – height ofGeneral Sherman, the largest tree in the world

Astronomical

  • 30 meters – diameter of1998 KY26, a rapidly spinning meteoroid
  • 30.8568 meters – 1 femtoparsec
  • 32 meters – approximate diameter of2008 HJ, a small meteoroid

1 hectometer

The Great Pyramid of Giza is 138.8 m (455 ft) high.
Britishdriver location sign and location marker post on theM27 inHampshire. The location marker posts are installed at 100-meter intervals.[130]

Thehectometre (SI symbol:hm) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to 100 meters (102 m). To compare differentorders of magnitude this section lists lengths between 100 meters and 1,000 meters (1kilometer).

Conversions

100 meters (sometimes termed a hectometer) is equal to:

  • 328feet
  • one side of a1 hectare square
  • a fifth of a modernli, a Chinese unit of measurement
  • the approximate distance travelled by light in 300nanoseconds

Human-defined scales and structures

  • 100 meters – wavelength of the highest medium wave radio frequency,3 MHz
  • 100 meters – spacing of location marker posts on British motorways
  • 110 meters – height of theSaturn V
  • 122 meters – height of theStarship, the tallest rocket currently under development bySpaceX
  • 138.8 meters – height of theGreat Pyramid of Giza (Pyramid of Cheops)
  • 139 meters – height of the world's tallest roller coaster,Kingda Ka[131]
  • 157 meters – height of theCologne Cathedral
  • 162 meters – height of theUlm Minster, the tallest church building in the world
  • 165 meters – height of theDushanbe Flagpole, the tallest flagpole from May 2011 to September 2014
  • 169 meters – height of theWashington Monument
  • 171 meters – height of theJeddah Flagpole, the tallest flagpole from September 2014 to December 2021
  • 182 meters – height of theStatue of Unity, the world's tallest statue
  • 187 meters – shortest wavelength of the broadcast radio AM band,1600 kHz
  • 192 meters – height of theGateway Arch
  • 202 meters – height of theCairo Flagpole, the tallest flagpole as of December 2021
  • 202 meters – length of theSzéchenyi Chain Bridge connecting Buda and Pest
  • 220 meters – height of theHoover Dam
  • 245 meters – length of theLZ 129 Hindenburg
  • 270 meters – length of theTitanic
  • 318 meters – height of TheNew York Times Building
  • 318.9 meters – height of theChrysler Building
  • 328 meters – height of Auckland'sSky Tower, the tallest free-standing structure in the Southern Hemisphere (1996–2022)
  • 330 meters – height of theEiffel Tower (including antenna)[132]
  • 336 meters – height of the world's tallest bridge as of October 2023, theMillau Viaduct
  • 364.75 meters – length of theIcon of the Seas
  • 390 meters – height of theEmpire State Building
  • 400–800 meters – approximate heights of the world's tallest skyscrapers from 1931 to 2010
  • 458 meters – length of theKnock Nevis, the world's largest supertanker
  • 553.33 meters – height of theCN Tower,[133] the tallest structure in North America
  • 555 meters – longest wavelength of the broadcast radio AM band,540 kHz
  • 630 meters – height of theKVLY-TV mast, one of the tallest structures in the world
  • 646 meters – height of theWarsaw radio mast, the world's tallest structure until its collapse in 1991
  • 679 meters – height ofMerdeka 118, the second tallest structure inKuala Lumpur,Malaysia
  • 828 meters – height ofBurj Khalifa, world's tallest structure since 17 January 2009[134]
  • 1,000 meters – wavelength of the lowest mediumwave radio frequency,300 kHz

Sports

  • 100 meters – the distance a very fast human can run in about 10 seconds
  • 100.584 meters – length of a Canadian football field between the goal lines (110yards)
  • 91.5 meters – 137 meters – length of a soccer field[119]
  • 105 meters – length of football pitch (UEFA stadium categories 3 and 4)
  • 105 meters – length of a typical football field
  • 109.73 meters – total length of an American football field (120 yards, including the end zones)
  • 110–150 meters – the width of an Australian football field
  • 135–185 meters – the length of an Australian football field
  • 137.16 meters – total length of a Canadian football field, including the end zones (150 yards)

Nature

  • 115.5 meters – height of the world's tallest tree in 2007, theHyperion sequoia[135]
  • 310 meters – maximum depth ofLake Geneva
  • 340 meters – distance sound travels in air at sea level in one second; seeSpeed of sound
  • 947 meters – height of theTugela Falls, the highest waterfall in Africa
  • 979 meters – height of theAngel Falls, the world's highest free-falling waterfall (Venezuela)

Astronomical

1 kilometer

Mount Fuji is 3.776 kilometres (2.346 mi) high.

Thekilometre (SI symbol:km) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to1000 meters (103 m). To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listslengths between 1 kilometer and 10 kilometers (103 and 104meters).

Conversions

1kilometer (unit symbol km) is equal to:

Human-defined scales and structures

Nature

  • 1.5 km – distance sound travels in water in one second

Geographical

This sectionneeds additional citations forverification. Please helpimprove this article byadding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.(March 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
See also:List of highest mountains on Earth

Astronomical

10 kilometers (1 myriameter)

TheStrait of Gibraltar is 13 km (8.1 mi) wide.

To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listslengths between 10 and 100kilometers (104 to 105meters). Themyriameter[147] (sometimes also spelledmyriometer; 10,000 meters) is a deprecated unit name; the decimal metric prefixmyria-[98] (sometimes also written asmyrio-[148][149][150]) is obsolete[99][100][101] and was not included among theprefixes when theInternational System of Units was introduced in 1960.

Conversions

10 kilometers is equal to:

Distance marker on theRhine: 36 (XXXVI) myriameters fromBasel. The stated distance is 360 km (220 mi); the comma is thedecimal separator inGermany.

Sports

Human-defined scales and structures

Geographical

Astronomical

100 kilometers

TheSuez Canal is 163 km (101 mi) long.

A length of100 kilometers (about 62 miles), as a rough amount, is relatively common in measurements on Earth and for some astronomical objects.It is the altitude at which theFAI definesspaceflight to begin.

To help compareorders of magnitude, this section listslengths between 100 and 1,000kilometers (105 and 106meters).

Conversions

A distance of 100 kilometers is equal to about 62 miles (or 62.13711922 miles).

Human-defined scales and structures

Geographical

Astronomical

1 megameter

Small planets, theMoon anddwarf planets in the Solar System have diameters from one to ten million meters. Top row:Mars (left),Mercury (right); bottom row:Moon (left),Pluto (center), andHaumea (right), to scale.

Themegametre (SI symbol:Mm) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to1000000 meters (106 m). To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listslengths starting at 106m (1 Mm or 1,000km).

Conversions

1 megameter is equal to:

  • 1000 km
  • 1 E+6 m (one million meters)
  • approximately 621.37miles
  • 1 E+12 μm (one trillion micrometers)
  • Side ofsquare with area 1,000,000 km2

Human-defined scales and structures

Sports

Geographical

Astronomical

10 megameters

Planets from Venus up to Uranus have diameters from ten to one hundred million meters. Top row:Uranus (left),Neptune (right); middle row:Earth (left),Sirius B (center), andVenus (right), to scale.
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To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listslengths starting at 107meters (10 megameters or 10,000kilometers).

Conversions

10 megameters (10 Mm) is

Human-defined scales and structures

Geographical

Astronomical

  • 12.000 Mm – diameter ofSirius B, awhite dwarf[166]
  • 12.104 Mm – diameter ofVenus
  • 12.742 Mm – diameter ofEarth
  • 12.900 Mm – minimum distance of themeteoroid2004 FU162 from the centre of Earth on 31 March 2004, closest on record
  • 14.000 Mm – smallest diameter of Jupiter'sGreat Red Spot
  • 19.000 Mm – separation betweenPluto andCharon
  • 30.8568 Mm – 1 nanoparsec
  • 34.770 Mm – minimum distance of theasteroid99942 Apophis on 13 April 2029 from the centre of Earth
  • 35.786 Mm – altitude ofgeostationary orbit
  • 40.005 Mm – polar circumference of the Earth
  • 40.077 Mm – equatorial circumference of the Earth
  • 49.528 Mm – diameter ofNeptune
  • 51.118 Mm – diameter ofUranus

100 megameters

TheEarth-Moon orbit,Saturn,OGLE-TR-122b,Jupiter, andother objects, to scale. Click on image for detailed view and links to other length scales.
Scale model at megameters of the main Solar System bodies

To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listslengths starting at 108meters (100 megameters or 100,000kilometers or 62,150miles).

1 gigameter

13 things in the gigameter group
Upper part:Gamma Orionis,Algol B, theSun (centre), andother objects to scale.

Thegigametre (SI symbol:Gm) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to1000000000 meters (109 m). To help compare different distances this section lists lengths starting at 109meters (1 gigameter (Gm) or 1 billionmeters).

10 gigameters

Rigel and Aldebaran (top left and right) compared to smaller stars, the Sun (very small dot in lower middle, with orbit of Mercury as yellow ellipse) and transparent sphere with radius of one light-minute

To help compare differentdistances this section lists lengths starting at 1010meters (10gigameters (Gm) or 10 millionkilometers, or 0.07astronomical units).

100 gigameters

From largest to smallest: Jupiter's orbit, red supergiant star Betelgeuse, Mars' orbit, Earth's orbit, star R Doradus, and orbits of Venus, Mercury. Inside R Doradus's depiction are the blue supergiant star Rigel and red giant star Aldebaran. The faint yellow glow around the Sun represents one light-minute. Click image to see more details and links to their scales.

To help compare distances at differentorders of magnitude this section lists lengths starting at 1011meters (100gigameter or 100 millionkilometers or 0.7astronomical units).

1 terameter

Eight things in the terameter group
Comparison of size of the Kuiper belt (large faint torus) with the star VY Canis Majoris (within Saturn's orbit), Betelgeuse (inside Jupiter's orbit) and R Doradus (small central red sphere) together with the orbits of Neptune and Uranus, to scale. The yellow ellipses represent the orbits of each planet and the dwarf planet Pluto.

Theterametre (SI symbol:Tm) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to1000000000000 meters (1012 m). To help compare differentdistances, this section lists lengths starting at 1012m (1Tm or 1 billionkm or 6.7astronomical units).

10 terameters

Sedna's orbit (left) is longer than 100 Tm, but other lengths are between 10 and 100 Tm:Comet Hale-Bopp's orbit (lower, faint orange); onelight-day (yellow spherical shell with yellow Vernal point arrow as radius); the heliosphere'stermination shock (blue shell); and other arrows show positions ofVoyager 1 (red) andPioneer 10 (green). Click on image for larger view and links to other scales.

To help compare differentdistances this section lists lengths starting at 1013m (10Tm or 10 billionkm or 67astronomical units).

  • 10 Tm – 67 AU – diameter of a hypotheticalquasi-star
  • 11.1 Tm – 74.2 AU – distance thatVoyager 1 began detecting returning particles fromtermination shock
  • 11.4 Tm – 76.2 AU –perihelion distance of90377 Sedna
  • 12.1 Tm – 70 to 90 AU – distance totermination shock (Voyager 1 crossed at 94 AU)
  • 12.9 Tm – 86.3 AU – distance to 90377 Sedna in March 2014
  • 13.2 Tm – 88.6 AU – distance toPioneer 11 in March 2014
  • 14.1 Tm – 94.3 AU – estimated radius of theSolar System
  • 14.4 Tm – 96.4 AU – distance toEris in March 2014 (now near itsaphelion)
  • 15.1 Tm – 101 AU – distance toheliosheath
  • 16.5 Tm – 111 AU – distance toPioneer 10 as of March 2014
  • 16.6 Tm – 111.2 AU – distance toVoyager 2 as of May 2016
  • 18 Tm – 123.5 AU – distance between theSun to the farthest dwarf planet in the Solar System, the Farout2018 VG18
  • 20.0 Tm – 135 AU – distance toVoyager 1 as of May 2016
  • 20.6 Tm – 138 AU – distance toVoyager 1 as of late February 2017
  • 21.1 Tm – 141 AU – distance toVoyager 1 as of November 2017
  • 24.8 Tm – 166 AU – distance toVoyager 1 as of November 2024
  • 25.9 Tm – 173 AU – onelight-day
  • 30.8568 Tm – 206.3 AU – 1 milliparsec
  • 55.7 Tm – 371 AU – aphelion distance of thecometHale-Bopp

100 terameters

The largest yellow sphere indicates one light month distance from the Sun. Click the image for larger view, more details and links to other scales.
This list isincomplete; you can help byadding missing items.(November 2012)

To help compare differentdistances this section lists lengths starting at 1014m (100Tm or 100 billionkm or 670astronomical units).

1 petameter

Largest circle with yellow arrow indicates onelight-year fromSun;Cat's Eye Nebula on left andBarnard 68 in middle are depicted in front ofComet 1910 A1's orbit. Click image for larger view, details and links to other scales.

Thepetametre (SI symbol:Pm) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to 1015 meters. To help compare differentdistances this section lists lengths starting at 1015m (1 Pm or 1 trillionkm or 6685astronomical units (AU) or 0.11light-years).

10 petameters

Objects with size order of magnitude 1e16m: Ten light-years (94.6Pm) radius circle with yellow Vernal Point arrow; Bubble Nebula (NGC 7635), left; Dumbbell Nebula (NGC 6853), right; one light-year shell lower right with the smaller Cat's Eye Nebula (NGC_6543) and Barnard 68 adjacent.
1e16m lengths: Ten light-years (94.6Pm) yellow shell; Sirius below right; BL Ceti below left; Proxima and Alpha Centauri upper right; light-year shell with Comet 1910 A1's orbit inside top right

To help compare different distances this section lists lengths starting at 1016m (10Pm or 66,800AU, 1.06light-years).

100 petameters

Lengths with order of magnitude 1e17m: yellow Vernal Point arrow traces hundred light-year radius circle with smaller ten light-year circle at right; globular cluster Messier 5 in background; 12 light-year radius Orion Nebula middle right; 50-light-year-wide view of the Carina Nebula bottom left; Pleiades cluster and Bubble nebula with similar diameters each around 10 light-years bottom right; grey arrows show distances from Sun to stars Aldebaran (65 light-years) and Vega (25 light-years)

To help compare differentdistances this section lists lengths between 1017m (100Pm or 11light-years) and 1018 m (106 light-years).

  • 110 Pm – 12 light-years – Distance toTau Ceti
  • 230 Pm – 24 light-years – Diameter of theOrion Nebula[197][198]
  • 240 Pm – 25 light-years – Distance toVega
  • 260 Pm – 27 light-years – Distance toChara, a star approximately as bright as the Sun. Its faintness gives an idea how theSun would appear when viewed from this distance.
  • 308.568 Tm – 32.6 light-years – 1 dekaparsec
  • 350 Pm – 37 light-years – distance toArcturus
  • 373.1 Pm – 39.44 light-years – distance toTRAPPIST-1, a star recently discovered to have 7 planets around it
  • 400 Pm – 42 light-years – distance toCapella
  • 620 Pm – 65 light-years – distance toAldebaran
  • 750 Pm – 79.36 light-years – distance toRegulus
  • 900 Pm – 92.73 light-years – distance toAlgol
  • 946 Pm – 1 light-century

1 exameter

Lengths with order of magnitude 1e18m: thousand light-year radius circle with yellow arrow and 100 light-year circle at right with globular cluster Messier 5 within and Carina Nebula in front; globular cluster Omega Centauri to left of both; part of the 1,400-light-year-wide Tarantula Nebula fills the background

Theexametre (SI symbol:Em) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to 1018meters. To help compare differentdistances this section lists lengths between 1018 m (1 Em or 105.7light-years) and 1019 m (10 Em or 1,057 light-years).

10 exameters

To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listsdistances starting at 10Em (1019m or 1,100light-years).

100 exameters

To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listsdistances starting at 100Em (1020m or 11,000light-years).

1 zettameter

Thezettametre (SI symbol:Zm) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to 1021meters.[55] To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listsdistances starting at 1 Zm (1021 m or 110,000light-years).

10 zettameters

To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listsdistances starting at 10Zm (1022m or 1.1 millionlight-years).

100 zettameters

To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listsdistances starting at 100Zm (1023m or 11 millionlight-years).

1 yottameter

Theyottametre (SI symbol:Ym) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to 1024 meters.[55]

To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listsdistances starting at 1 Ym (1024m or 105.702 millionlight-years).

10 yottameters

The universe within one billion light-years of Earth

To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listsdistances starting at 10Ym (1025m or 1.1 billionlight-years). At this scale, expansion of theuniverse becomes significant. Distance of these objects are derived from their measuredredshifts, which depends on thecosmological models used.

100 yottameters

To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listsdistances starting at 100Ym (1026m or 11 billionlight-years). At this scale, expansion of theuniverse becomes significant. Distance of these objects are derived from their measuredredshifts, which depend on thecosmological models used.

1 ronnameter

Theronnametre (SI symbol:Rm) is aunit oflength in themetric system equal to 1027 meters.[55]

To help compare differentorders of magnitude, this section listsdistances starting at 1 Rm (1027m or 105.7 billionlight-years). At this scale, expansion of theuniverse becomes significant. Distance of these objects are derived from their measuredredshifts, which depend on thecosmological models used.

  • >1 Rm – >105.7 billion light-years – size of universe beyond thecosmic light horizon, depending on its curvature; if the curvature is zero (i.e. the universe is spatially flat), the value can beinfinite (seeShape of the universe) as previously mentioned.
  • 2.764 Rm - 292.2 billion light-years – circumference of the observable universe, as it is in the shape of a sphere.
  • ≈101010122light-years – the possible size of the universe aftercosmological inflation.
  • ≈∞ light-years – theoretical size of themultiverse if it exists.

See also

Notes

  1. ^Thediameter of human hair ranges from 17 to 181 μmLey, Brian (1999). Elert, Glenn (ed.)."Diameter of a human hair".The Physics Factbook. Retrieved8 December 2018.
  2. ^abThe exactcategory (asteroid, dwarf planet, or planet) to which particular Solar System objects belong, has been subject to some revision since the discovery ofextrasolar planets andtrans-Neptunian objects
  3. ^10115 is 1 followed by 115 zeroes, or agoogol multiplied by a quadrillion. 1010115 is 1 followed by a quadrillion googol zeroes. 101010122 is 1 followed by 1010122 (agoogolplex10 sextillion) zeroes.
  4. ^But notcloud or high-level fog droplets; droplet size increases with altitude. For a contradictory study indicating larger drop sizes even in ground fog, seeEldridge, Ralph G. (October 1961)."A Few Fog Drop-Size Distributions".Journal of Meteorology.18 (5):671–6.Bibcode:1961JAtS...18..671E.doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1961)018<0671:AFFDSD>2.0.CO;2.

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  2. ^Nave, Carl R."Cowan and Reines Neutrino Experiment".HyperPhysics. Retrieved4 December 2008. (6.3 × 10−44 cm2, which gives an effective radius of about 1.42 × 10−22 m)
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  180. ^McDonald, Iain; Zijlstra, Albert A.; Watson, Robert A. (11 October 2017)."Fundamental parameters and infrared excesses of Tycho-Gaia stars".Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.471 (1):770–791.arXiv:1706.02208.doi:10.1093/mnras/stx1433.ISSN 0035-8711.
  181. ^Chesneau, O.; Dessart, L.; Mourard, D.; Bério, Ph.; Buil, Ch.; Bonneau, D.; Borges Fernandes, M.; Clausse, J. M.; Delaa, O.; Marcotto, A.; Meilland, A.; Millour, F.; Nardetto, N.; Perraut, K.; Roussel, A.; Spang, A.; Stee, P.; Tallon-Bosc, I.; McAlister, H.; Ten Brummelaar, T.; Sturmann, J.; Sturmann, L.; Turner, N.; Farrington, C.; Goldfinger, P. J. (2010). "Time, spatial, and spectral resolution of the Hα line-formation region of Deneb and Rigel with the VEGA/CHARA interferometer".Astronomy and Astrophysics.521: A5.arXiv:1007.2095.Bibcode:2010A&A...521A...5C.doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201014509.S2CID 10340205.
  182. ^Woodruff, H. C.; Eberhardt, M.; Driebe, T.; Hofmann, K.-H.; Ohnaka, K.; Richichi, A.; Schertl, D.; Schoeller, M.; Scholz, M.; Weigelt, G.; Wittkowski, M.; Wood, P. R. (July 2004). "Interferometric observations of the Mira star o Ceti with the VLTI/VINCI instrument in the near-infrared".Astronomy & Astrophysics.421 (2):703–714.arXiv:astro-ph/0404248.Bibcode:2004A&A...421..703W.doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20035826.ISSN 0004-6361.
  183. ^Lau, R. M.; Herter, T. L.; Morris, M. R.; Adams, J. D. (2014). "Nature Versus Nurture: Luminous Blue Variable Nebulae in and Near Massive Stellar Clusters at the Galactic Center".The Astrophysical Journal.785 (2): 120.arXiv:1403.5298.Bibcode:2014ApJ...785..120L.doi:10.1088/0004-637X/785/2/120.S2CID 118447462.
  184. ^Anugu, Narsireddy; Baron, Fabien; Monnier, John D.; Gies, Douglas R.; Roettenbacher, Rachael M.; Schaefer, Gail H.; Montargès, Miguel; Kraus, Stefan; Bouquin, Jean-Baptiste Le (5 August 2024). "CHARA Near-Infrared Imaging of the Yellow Hypergiant Star $\rho$ Cassiopeiae: Convection Cells and Circumstellar Envelope".arXiv:2408.02756v2 [astro-ph.SR].
  185. ^Joyce, Meridith; Leung, Shing-Chi; Molnár, László; Ireland, Michael; Kobayashi, Chiaki; Nomoto, Ken'Ichi (2020)."Standing on the Shoulders of Giants: New Mass and Distance Estimates for Betelgeuse through Combined Evolutionary, Asteroseismic, and Hydrodynamic Simulations with MESA".The Astrophysical Journal.902 (1): 63.arXiv:2006.09837.Bibcode:2020ApJ...902...63J.doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abb8db.
  186. ^Gull, Theodore R.; Hillier, D. John; Hartman, Henrik; Corcoran, Michael F.; Damineli, Augusto; Espinoza-Galeas, David; Hamaguchi, Kenji; Navarete, Felipe; Nielsen, Krister; Madura, Thomas; Moffat, Anthony F. J.; Morris, Patrick; Richardson, Noel D.; Russell, Christopher M. P.; Stevens, Ian R. (July 2022)."Eta Carinae: An Evolving View of the Central Binary, Its Interacting Winds and Its Foreground Ejecta".The Astrophysical Journal.933 (2): 175.arXiv:2205.15116.Bibcode:2022ApJ...933..175G.doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac74c2.ISSN 0004-637X.
  187. ^Munoz-Sanchez, G.; Kalitsounaki, M.; Wit, S. de; Antoniadis, K.; Bonanos, A. Z.; Zapartas, E.; Boutsia, K.; Christodoulou, E.; Maravelias, G. (2 December 2024),The dramatic transition of the extreme Red Supergiant WOH G64 to a Yellow Hypergiant,arXiv:2411.19329
  188. ^van Genderen, A. M.; Lobel, A.; Nieuwenhuijzen, H.; Henry, G. W.; De Jager, C.; Blown, E.; Di Scala, G.; Van Ballegoij, E. J. (2019). "Pulsations, eruptions, and evolution of four yellow hypergiants".Astronomy and Astrophysics.631: A48.arXiv:1910.02460.Bibcode:2019A&A...631A..48V.doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834358.S2CID 203836020.
  189. ^Bauer, W. H.; Gull, T. R.; Bennett, P. D. (2008)."Spatial Extension in the Ultraviolet Spectrum of Vv Cephei".The Astronomical Journal.136 (3): 1312.Bibcode:2008AJ....136.1312H.doi:10.1088/0004-6256/136/3/1312.S2CID 119404901.
  190. ^Table 4 inEmily M. Levesque; Philip Massey; K. A. G. Olsen; Bertrand Plez; Eric Josselin; Andre Maeder & Georges Meynet (2005). "The Effective Temperature Scale of Galactic Red Supergiants: Cool, but Not As Cool As We Thought".The Astrophysical Journal.628 (2):973–985.arXiv:astro-ph/0504337.Bibcode:2005ApJ...628..973L.doi:10.1086/430901.S2CID 15109583.
  191. ^Shenoy, Dinesh; Humphreys, Roberta M.; Jones, Terry J.; Marengo, Massimo; Gehrz, Robert D.; Helton, L. Andrew; Hoffmann, William F.; Skemer, Andrew J.; Hinz, Philip M. (2016)."SEARCHING FOR COOL DUST IN THE MID-TO-FAR INFRARED: THE MASS-LOSS HISTORIES OF THE HYPERGIANTSμ Cep, VY CMa, IRC+10420, ANDρ Cas".The Astronomical Journal.151 (3): 51.arXiv:1512.01529.Bibcode:2016AJ....151...51S.doi:10.3847/0004-6256/151/3/51.
  192. ^Wittkowski, M.; Hauschildt, P.H.; Arroyo-Torres, B.; Marcaide, J.M. (5 April 2012). "Fundamental properties and atmospheric structure of the red supergiant VY CMa based on VLTI/AMBER spectro-interferometry".Astronomy & Astrophysics.540: L12.arXiv:1203.5194.Bibcode:2012A&A...540L..12W.doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219126.S2CID 54044968.
  193. ^Parthasarathy, M. (2000). "Birth and early evolution of planetary nebulae".Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India.28:217–224.Bibcode:2000BASI...28..217P.
  194. ^radius = distance times sin(angular diameter/2) = 0.2light-year. Distance = 3.3 ± 0.9kly; angular diameter = 20arcseconds (Reed et al. 1999)
  195. ^Reed, Darren S.; Balick, Bruce; Hajian, Arsen R.; Klayton, Tracy L.; Giovanardi, Stefano; Casertano, Stefano; Panagia, Nino; Terzian, Yervant (1999). "Hubble Space Telescope Measurements of the Expansion of NGC 6543: Parallax Distance and Nebular Evolution".Astronomical Journal.118 (5):2430–2441.arXiv:astro-ph/9907313.Bibcode:1999AJ....118.2430R.doi:10.1086/301091.S2CID 14746840.
  196. ^Szpir, Michael (May–June 2001)."Bart Bok's Black Blobs".American Scientist. Archived fromthe original on 29 June 2003. Retrieved19 November 2008.Bok globules such as Barnard 68 are only about half a light-year across and weigh in at about two solar masses
  197. ^Sandstrom, Karin M; Peek, J. E. G.; Bower, Geoffrey C.; Bolatto, Alberto D.; Plambeck, Richard L. (1999). "A Parallactic Distance of389+24
    −21
    parsecs to the Orion Nebula Cluster from Very Long Baseline Array Observations".The Astrophysical Journal.667 (2):1161–1169.arXiv:0706.2361.Bibcode:2007ApJ...667.1161S.doi:10.1086/520922.S2CID 18192326.
  198. ^diameter=sin(65 arcminutes)*1270 light-years=24; where "65.00 × 60.0 (arcmin)" sourced fromRevised NGC Data for NGC 1976
  199. ^distance × sin( diameter_angle ), using distance of 5kpc (15.8 ± 1.1 kly) and angle 36.3', = 172 ± 12.5 ly.
  200. ^van de Ven, G.; van den Bosch, R. C. E.; Verolme, E. K.; de Zeeuw, P. T. (2006). "The dynamical distance and intrinsic structure of the globular cluster ω Centauri".Astronomy and Astrophysics.445 (2):513–543.arXiv:astro-ph/0509228.Bibcode:2006A&A...445..513V.doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20053061.S2CID 15538249.best-fit dynamical distance D=4.8±0.3 kpc ... consistent with the canonical value 5.0±0.2 kpc obtained by photometric methods
  201. ^abvan Leeuwen, F. (2007). "Validation of the new Hipparcos reduction".Astronomy and Astrophysics.474 (2):653–664.arXiv:0708.1752.Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V.doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078357.S2CID 18759600.Vizier catalog entry
  202. ^Neuhäuser, R; Torres, G; Mugrauer, M; Neuhäuser, D L; Chapman, J; Luge, D; Cosci, M (29 July 2022)."Colour evolution of Betelgeuse and Antares over two millennia, derived from historical records, as a new constraint on mass and age".Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.516 (1):693–719.arXiv:2207.04702.doi:10.1093/mnras/stac1969.ISSN 0035-8711.
  203. ^Harris, Hugh C.; Dahn, Conard C.; Canzian, Blaise; Guetter, Harry H.; et al. (2007). "Trigonometric Parallaxes of Central Stars of Planetary Nebulae".The Astronomical Journal.133 (2):631–638.arXiv:astro-ph/0611543.Bibcode:2007AJ....133..631H.doi:10.1086/510348.S2CID 18261027.
  204. ^Reid, M. J.; et al. (2009). "Trigonometric Parallaxes of Massive Star Forming Regions: VI. Galactic Structure, Fundamental Parameters and Non-Circular Motions".Astrophysical Journal.700 (1):137–148.arXiv:0902.3913.Bibcode:2009ApJ...700..137R.doi:10.1088/0004-637X/700/1/137.S2CID 11347166.

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