Peru,[e] officially theRepublic of Peru,[f] is a country in westernSouth America. It is bordered to the north byEcuador andColombia, to the east byBrazil, to the southeast byBolivia, to the south byChile, and to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. Peru is amegadiverse country, with habitats ranging from the arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in the west, to the peaks of theAndes mountains extending from the north to the southeast of the country, to the tropicalAmazon basin rainforest in the east with theAmazon River.[10] Peru hasa population of over 32 million, and its capital and largest city isLima. At 1,285,216 km2 (496,225 sq mi), Peru is the19th largest country in the world, and thethird largest in South America.
Peru's population includesMestizos,Amerindians,Europeans,Africans andAsians. The main spoken language isSpanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speakQuechuan languages,Aymara, or otherIndigenous languages. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such asart,cuisine,literature, andmusic. Peru has recently gained international recognition for its vibrant gastronomy, blending Indigenous, Spanish, African, and Asian influences. Lima is now considered a global culinary capital, home to award-winning restaurants likeCentral and Maido.[20]
Etymology
The name of the country may be derived fromBirú, the name of a local ruler who lived near theBay of San Miguel, Panama City, in the early 16th century.[21] Spanishconquistadors, who arrived in 1522, believed this was the southernmost part of theNew World.[22] WhenFrancisco Pizarro invaded the regions farther south, they came to be designatedBirú orPerú.[23]
An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writerInca Garcilaso de la Vega, son of an Inca princess and a conquistador. He said the nameBirú was that of a common Amerindian who was happened upon by the crew of a ship on an exploratory mission for governorPedro Arias Dávila and went on to relate more instances of misunderstandings due to the lack of a common language.[24]
TheSpanish crown gave the name legal status with the 1529Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encounteredInca Empire as the province of Peru.[25] In 1561, the rebelLope de Aguirre declared himself the "Prince" of an independent Peru, which was cut short by his arrest and execution. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denominationViceroyalty of Peru, which became thePeruvian Republic from itsindependence until1979, when it adopted its current name ofRepublic of Peru.[26]
The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 12,500BCE in theHuaca Prieta settlement.[27] Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such asirrigation andterracing;camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied onreciprocity andredistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money. The oldest known complex society in Peru, theCaral-Supe civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE.[28][29] These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal and Andean regions throughout Peru. TheCupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BCE[30] along what is now Peru'sPacific coast was an example of early pre-Inca culture.
Moche earrings depicting warriors, made of turquoise and gold (1–800 CE)
TheChavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BCE was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, with their religious center inChavín de Huantar.[31] After the decline of the Chavin culture around the beginning of the 1st century CE, a series of localized and specialized cultures rose and fell, both on the coast and in the highlands, during the next thousand years. On the coast, these included the civilizations of theParacas,Nazca,Wari, and the more outstandingChimu andMoche.
The Moche, who reached their apogee in the first millennium CE, were renowned for their irrigation system which fertilized their arid terrain, their sophisticated ceramic pottery, their lofty buildings, and clever metalwork.[32][33] The Chimu were the great city builders of pre-Inca civilization; as a loose confederation of walled cities scattered along the coast of northern Peru, the Chimu flourished from about 1140 to 1450.[34][35] Their capital was atChan Chan outside of modern-dayTrujillo.[34] In the highlands, both theTiahuanaco culture, nearLake Titicaca in both Peru and Bolivia,[36] and the Wari culture, near the present-day city ofAyacucho, developed large urban settlements and wide-ranging state systems between 500 and 1000 CE.[37][38]
The citadel ofMachu Picchu, an iconic symbol of pre-Columbian Peru
In the 15th century, theIncas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed thelargest empire in thepre-Columbian Americas with their capital inCusco.[39][40][41] The Incas of Cusco originally represented one of the small and relatively minor ethnic groups, theQuechuas. Gradually, as early as the thirteenth century, they began to expand and incorporate their neighbors. Inca expansion was slow until about the middle of the fifteenth century, when the pace of conquest began to accelerate, particularly under the rule of the emperorPachacuti.[42] Under his rule and that of his son,Topa Inca Yupanqui, the Incas came to control most of the Andean region, with a population of 9 to 16 million inhabitants under their rule. Pachacuti also promulgated a comprehensive code of laws to govern his far-flung empire, while consolidating his absolute temporal and spiritual authority as the God of the Sun who ruled from a magnificently rebuilt Cusco.[43]
From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on theAndean mountain ranges, from southern Colombia to northern Chile, between the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Amazon rainforest in the east. The official language of the empire wasQuechua,[44] although hundreds of local languages and dialects were spoken. The Inca referred to their empire asTawantinsuyu which can be translated as "The Four Regions" or "The Four United Provinces." Many local forms of worship persisted in the empire, most of them concerning local sacredHuacas, but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship ofInti, the sun god and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that ofPachamama.[45] The Incas considered their King, theSapa Inca, to be the "child of the sun."[46][47]
Los funerales de Atahualpa (1867) by Luis Montero.Atahualpa was the lastSapa Inca, executed by the Spaniards on 29 August 1533.
Atahualpa (or Atahuallpa), the lastSapa Inca, became emperor when he defeated and executed his older half-brotherHuáscar in a civil war sparked by the death of their father,[48] Inca Huayna Capac. In December 1532, a party of conquistadors (supported by theChankas,Huancas,Cañaris andChachapoyas asIndian auxiliaries) led byFrancisco Pizarro defeated and captured the Inca Emperor Atahualpa in theBattle of Cajamarca.[49] After years of preliminary exploration and military conflicts, it was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory and colonization of the region known as theViceroyalty of Peru with its capital atLima, which was then known asLa Ciudad de los Reyes (The City of Kings). The conquest of Peru led to spin-off campaigns throughout the viceroyalty as well as expeditions towards the Amazon Basin as in the case of Spanish efforts to quell Amerindian resistance. The last Inca resistance was suppressed when the Spaniards annihilated theNeo-Inca State inVilcabamba in 1572.
The Indigenous population dramatically collapsed overwhelmingly due to epidemic diseases introduced by the Spanish as well as exploitation and socio-economic change.[50] ViceroyFrancisco de Toledo reorganized the country in the 1570s with gold and silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindianforced labor as its primary workforce. With the discovery of the great silver and gold lodes atPotosí (present-day Bolivia) andHuancavelica, the viceroyalty flourished as an important provider of mineral resources. Peruvianbullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines. The commercial and population exchanges between Latin America and Asia undergone via theManila Galleons transiting through Acapulco, hadCallao at Peru as the furthest endpoint of the trade route in the Americas.[51] In relation to this, DonSebastian Hurtado de Corcuera, governor of Panama was also responsible for settlingZamboanga City in the Philippines by employing Peruvian soldiers and colonists.[52]African slaves were added to the labor population to expand the workforce. The expansion of a colonial administrative apparatus and bureaucracy paralleled the economic reorganization.
With the conquest started the spread of Christianity in South America; most people were forcefully converted toCatholicism, with Spanish clerics believing like Puritan divines of English colonies later that the Native Peoples "had been corrupted by the Devil, who was working "through them to frustrate" their foundations.[53] It only took a generation to convert the population. They built churches in every city and replaced some of the Inca temples with churches, such as theCoricancha in the city of Cusco. The church employed theInquisition, making use of torture to ensure that newly converted Catholics did not stray to other religions or beliefs, and monastery schools, educating girls, especially of the Inca nobility and upper class, "until they were old enough either to profess [to become a nun] or to leave the monastery and assume the role ('estado') in the Christian society that their fathers planned to erect" in Peru.[54] Peruvian Catholicism follows thesyncretism found in many Latin American countries, in which religious native rituals have been integrated with Christian celebrations.[55] In this endeavor, the church came to play an important role in theacculturation of the Natives, drawing them into the cultural orbit of the Spanish settlers.
By the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income. In response, the Crown enacted theBourbon Reforms, a series ofedicts that increased taxes and partitioned theViceroyalty. The new laws provokedTúpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were suppressed. As a result of these and other changes, the Spaniards and theircreole successors came to monopolize control over the land, seizing many of the best lands abandoned by the massive native depopulation. However, the Spanish did not resist thePortuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. TheTreaty of Tordesillas was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 whileSpain controlled Portugal. The need to ease communication and trade with Spain led to the split of the viceroyalty and the creation of new viceroyalties ofNew Granada andRio de la Plata at the expense of the territories that formed theViceroyalty of Peru; this reduced the power, prominence and importance of Lima as the viceroyal capital and shifted the lucrativeAndean trade toBuenos Aires andBogotá, while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
Eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. These movements led to the formation of the majority of modern-day countries of South America in the territories that at one point or another had constituted the Viceroyalty of Peru.[56] The conquest and colony brought a mix of cultures and ethnicities that did not exist before the Spanish conquered the Peruvian territory. Even though many of the Inca traditions were lost or diluted, new customs, traditions and knowledge were added, creating a rich mixed Peruvian culture.[55] Two of the most important Indigenous rebellions against the Spanish were that ofJuan Santos Atahualpa in 1742, and Rebellion ofTúpac Amaru II in 1780 around the highlands near Cuzco.[57]
In the early 19th century, while most South American nations were swept bywars of independence, Peru remained aroyalist stronghold. As the elite vacillated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish monarchy,independence was achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns ofJosé de San Martín andSimón Bolívar.
The economic crises, the loss of power of Spain in Europe, thewar of independence in North America, and Native uprisings all contributed to a favorable climate to the development of emancipation ideas among theCriollo population in South America. However, the Criollo oligarchy in Peru enjoyed privileges and remained loyal to the Spanish Crown. The liberation movement started in Argentina where autonomous juntas were created as a result of the loss of authority of the Spanish government over its colonies.
After fighting for the independence of the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata,José de San Martín created theArmy of the Andes andcrossed the Andes in 21 days. Once in Chile, he joined forces with Chilean army GeneralBernardo O'Higgins and liberated the country in the battles ofChacabuco andMaipú in 1818.[58] On 7 September 1820, a fleet of eight warships arrived in the port ofParacas under the command of General José de San Martín andThomas Cochrane, who was serving in the Chilean Navy. Immediately on 26 October, they took control of the town ofPisco. San Martín settled inHuacho on 12 November, where he established his headquarters while Cochrane sailed north and blockaded the port ofCallao in Lima. At the same time in the north,Guayaquil was occupied by rebel forces under the command of Gregorio Escobedo. Because Peru was the stronghold of the Spanish government in South America, San Martín's strategy to liberate Peru was to use diplomacy. He sent representatives to Lima urging theViceroy that Peru be granted independence, however, all negotiations proved unsuccessful.
San Martín proclaiming the independence of Peru. Painting byJuan Lepiani.
The Viceroy of Peru,Joaquín de la Pazuela namedJosé de la Serna commander-in-chief of the loyalist army to protect Lima from the threatened invasion by San Martín. On 29 January, de la Serna organized acoup against de la Pazuela, which was recognized by Spain and he was named Viceroy of Peru. This internal power struggle contributed to the success of the liberating army. To avoid a military confrontation, San Martín met the newly appointed viceroy, José de la Serna, and proposed to create aconstitutional monarchy, a proposal that was turned down. De la Serna abandoned the city, and on 12 July 1821, San Martín occupied Lima and declared Peruvian independence on 28 July 1821. He created the first Peruvian flag.Upper Peru (present-day Bolivia) remained as a Spanish stronghold until the army ofSimón Bolívar liberated it three years later. José de San Martín was declared Protector of Peru. Peruvian national identity was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for aLatin American Confederation floundered and aunion with Bolivia proved ephemeral.[59]
Simón Bolívar launched his campaign from the north, liberating theViceroyalty of New Granada in the Battles ofCarabobo in 1821 andPichincha a year later. In July 1822, Bolívar and San Martín gathered in theGuayaquil Conference. Bolívar was left in charge of fully liberating Peru while San Martín retired from politics after the first parliament was assembled. The newly foundedPeruvian Congress named Bolívar dictator of Peru, giving him the power to organize the military.
With the help ofAntonio José de Sucre, they defeated the larger Spanish army in theBattle of Junín on 6 August 1824 and the decisiveBattle of Ayacucho on 9 December of the same year, consolidating the independence of Peru and Upper Peru. Upper Peru was later established as Bolivia. During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.[60]
19th century
Once independence was proclaimed, San Martín assumed military-political command of the free departments of Peru, under the title of Protector, according to a decree given on 3 August 1821. The works of the Protectorate contributed to the creation of the National Library (in favor of knowledge), the approval of the National Anthem, and the abolition of the mita (in favor of the indigenous people). On 27 December 1821, San Martín created three ministries: Ministry of State and Foreign Affairs, committing Juan García del Río;Ministry of War and Navy, to Bernardo de Monteagudo; and Ministry of Finance, to Hipólito Unanue.
From the 1840s to the 1860s Peru enjoyeda period of stability under the presidency ofRamón Castilla, through increased state revenues fromguano exports.[61] In 1864, a Spanish expedition occupied the Chincha Islands (guano producers) and unleashed an international incident with great consequences in Peruvian internal politics, which led to a coup d'état against PresidentJuan Antonio Pezet, Mariano's government. Peru, with the help ofBolivia,Chile andEcuador, sent a declaration of war on Spain. After the battle of Callao on 2 May 1866, the Spanish Navy withdrew from Peru. The government of José Balta was lavish in infrastructure works (construction of the Central Railway) although the first signs of excess government spending were already perceived. By the 1870s the guano resources had been depleted, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.[62]
By 1859, some 41,000 Peruvians had died in the constant civil wars that shook the country since 1829. Thanks to the money from the sale of guano, Peru began to modernize with different public works such as railways; the civil and military bureaucracy grew; The indigenous people stopped paying tribute and the slaves achieved their freedom; The migration policy of Germans, Austrians, Irish and Italians began.
On 5 April 1879, Chile declared war on Peru, unleashing the Pacific War. The casus belli was the confrontation between Bolivia and Chile over a tax problem in which Peru was compromised by the Treaty of Defensive Alliance signed with Bolivia in 1873. However, Peruvian historiography is unanimous in maintaining that the deep cause ofthis war was Chile's ambition to take over the nitrate and guano territories of southern Peru. In the first stage of the war, the naval campaign, the Peruvian navy repelled the Chilean attack until 8 October 1879, the day in which the naval combat of Angamos was fought, where the Chilean navy with its ships Cochrane, Blanco Encalada, Loa and Covadonga cornered the monitorHuáscar, the main ship of the Peruvian navy commanded by Admiral AP Miguel Grau, who died in the fray and since then became Peru's greatest hero.
In 1879 Peru entered theWar of the Pacific, which lasted until 1884.Bolivia invoked its alliance with Peru against Chile. ThePeruvian Government tried to mediate the dispute by sending a diplomatic team to negotiate with the Chilean government, but the committee concluded that war was inevitable. Peruvian historiography is unanimous in maintaining that the deep cause of this war was Chile's ambition to take over the nitrate and guano territories of southern Peru and Bolivia.
Almost five years of war ended with the loss of thedepartment of Tarapacá and the provinces ofTacna andArica, in the Atacama region.Francisco Bolognesi andMiguel Grau are both renowned heros of the war. Originally Chile committed to a referendum for the cities of Arica and Tacna to be held years later, to self determine their national affiliation. However, Chile refused to apply the Treaty, and neither of the countries could determine the statutory framework. The War of the Pacific was the bloodiest war Peru has fought in. After the War of the Pacific, an extraordinary effort of rebuilding began. The government started to initiate a number of social and economic reforms to recover from the damage of the war. Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s.
Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under theCivilista Party, which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime ofAugusto B. Leguía. TheGreat Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of theAmerican Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA).[63] The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades. A final peace treaty in 1929, signed between Peru and Chile called theTreaty of Lima, returnedTacna to Peru. Between 1932 and 1933, Peru was engulfed in ayear-long war with Colombia over a territorial dispute involving theAmazonas Department and its capitalLeticia.
In 1941 Peru and Ecuador fought theEcuadorian–Peruvian War, after which theRio Protocol sought to formalize the boundary between those two countries. In a military coup on 29 October 1948, GeneralManuel A. Odría became president. Odría's presidency was known as theOchenio. He came down hard on APRA, momentarily pleasing the oligarchy and all others on the right, but followed apopulist course that won him great favor with the poor and lower classes. A thriving economy allowed him to indulge in expensive but crowd-pleasing social policies. At the same time, however,civil rights were severely restricted and corruption was rampant throughout his regime. Odría was succeeded byManuel Prado Ugarteche. However, widespread allegations of fraud prompted the Peruvian military to depose Prado and install a military junta, via acoup d'état led byRicardo Pérez Godoy. Godoy ran a short transitional government and held new elections in 1963, which were won byFernando Belaúnde Terry who assumed presidency until 1968. Belaúnde was recognized for his commitment to the democratic process.
Military Junta of 1968
On 3 October 1968 anothercoup d'état led by a group of officers led by GeneralJuan Velasco Alvarado brought the army to power with the aim of applying a doctrine of "social progress and integral development", nationalist and reformist, influenced by theUnited Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (UNECLAC) theses on dependence and underdevelopment. Six days after the golpe, Velasco proceeded to nationalize theInternational Petroleum Corporation (IPC), the North American company that exploited Peruvian oil, and then launched a reform of the state apparatus, an agrarian reform. It was the biggest agrarian reform ever undertaken in Latin America: it abolished thelatifunda system and modernized agriculture through a more equitable redistribution of land (90% of the peasants formed cooperatives or agricultural societies of social interest). Land was to be owned by those who cultivated it, and large landowners were expropriated. The only large properties allowed were cooperatives.
Between 1969 and 1976, 325,000 families received land from the state with an average size of 73.6 acres (29.8 hectares). The "revolutionary government" also planned massive investments in education, elevated theQuechua language – spoken by nearly half the population but hitherto despised by the authorities – to a status equivalent to that of Spanish and established equal rights for natural children. Peru wished to free itself from any dependence and carried out a third-world foreign policy. TheUnited States responded with commercial, economic and diplomatic pressure. In 1973 Peru seemed to triumph over the financial blockade imposed by Washington by negotiating a loan from the International Development Bank to finance its agricultural and mining development policy. The relations with Chile became very tense after the coup d'état of thegeneral Pinochet. GeneralEdgardo Mercado Jarrin (Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief of the Army) and Admiral Guillermo Faura Gaig (Minister of the Navy) both escaped assassination attempts within weeks of each other. In 1975 GeneralFrancisco Morales Bermúdez Cerruti seized power and broke with the policies of his predecessor. His regime occasionally participated inOperation Condor in collaboration with other American military dictatorships.[64][65]
PresidentAlan García's economic policies distanced Peru from international markets further, resulting in lower foreign investment in the country.[66] After the country experiencedchronic inflation, in mid-1985, the Peruviansol was replaced by theinti, which itself was replaced by thenuevo sol in July 1991 (the new sol had a cumulative value of one billion old soles). At the end of the 1980s, the per capita annual income of Peruvians fell to $720 (below the level of 1960) and Peru's GDP dropped 20%, with national reserves running a $900 million deficit. The economic turbulence of the time acerbated social tensions in Peru and partly contributed to the rise of violent rebel rural insurgent movements, likeSendero Luminoso (Shining Path) andMRTA, which causedgreat havoc throughout the country.[67][68][69]
The Peruvian armed forces, frustrated with the inability of the García administration to handle the nation's crises, drafted thePlan Verde, which involved the genocide of impoverished and indigenous Peruvians, the control or censorship of themedia in Peru, and the establishment of aneoliberal economy controlled by amilitary junta.[70][71][72]Alberto Fujimori assumed the presidency in 1990 and, according to the head of theNational Intelligence Service (SIN) Rospigliosi, an understanding was established between Fujimori,Vladimiro Montesinos, and some of the military officers involved inPlan Verde to abide by the military's demands prior to Fujimori's inauguration.[73][74][75] Fujimori would go on to adopt many of the policies outlined inPlan Verde, which led to a precitious drop in inflation from 7,650% at the start of 1990 to 139% in 1991 and 57% in 1992.[67][68][73] When Fujimori faced opposition to his reform efforts, he dissolved Congress, suspending the judiciary, arresting several opposition leaders and assuming full powers in theauto-golpe ("self-coup") of 5 April 1992.[76][73][77] He then revised the constitution, called new congressional elections, and implemented substantial economic reform, including privatization of numerous state-owned companies, creation of an investment-friendly climate, and sound management of the economy. Nonetheless, these policies did not benefit the poorest much, and inequality persisted despite Fujimori's economic achievements.[75][78]
Fujimori's administration was dogged byinsurgent groups, most notably Shining Path, which carried out attacks across the country throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Fujimori cracked down on the insurgents and was successful in largely quelling them by the late 1990s, but the fight was marred by atrocities committed by both the Peruvian security forces and the insurgents: theBarrios Altos massacre andLa Cantuta massacre by Government paramilitary groups, and the bombings ofTarata andFrecuencia Latina by Sendero Luminoso. Fujimori would also broaden the definition of terrorism in an effort to criminalize as many actions possible to persecute left-wing political opponents.[14] Using theterruqueo, afearmongering tactic that was used to accuse opponents of terrorism, Fujimori established acult of personality by portraying himself as a hero and made left-wing ideologies an eternal enemy in Peru.[14] Those incidents subsequently came to symbolize thehuman rights violations committed in the last years of violence.[79] HisPrograma Nacional de Población, 'National Population Program' also resulted with theforced sterilization of at least 300,000 poor and indigenous women.[74][80][81]
In early 1995, once again Peru and Ecuador clashed in theCenepa War, but in 1998 the governments of both nations signed a peace treaty that clearly demarcated the international boundary between them. In November 2000, Fujimori resigned from office and went into a self-imposed exile, initially avoiding prosecution for human rights violations and corruption charges by the new Peruvian authorities.[82]
Peru tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth at the start of the 21st century,[82] thoughFujimorism held power over much of Peruvian society through maintaining control of institutions and legislation created in the 1993 constitution, which was written by Fujimori and his supporters without opposition participation.[14] In spite of human rights progress since the time of insurgency, many problems are still visible and show the continued marginalization of those who suffered through the violence of the Peruvian conflict.[83] A caretaker government presided over byValentín Paniagua took on the responsibility of conducting new presidential and congressional elections. AfterwardsAlejandro Toledo became president in 2001 to 2006. On 28 July 2006, former presidentAlan García became President of Peru after winning the2006 elections. In 2006, Alberto Fujimori's daughter,Keiko Fujimori, entered Peru's political arena to continue her father's legacy and espouse Fujimorism.[84][85][86] In May 2008, Peru became a member of theUnion of South American Nations. In April 2009, former presidentAlberto Fujimori was convicted of human rights violations andsentenced to 25 years in prison for his role in killings and kidnappings by theGrupo Colinadeath squad during his government's battle against leftist guerrillas in the 1990s.[87]
TheCOVID-19 pandemic resulted with Peru experiencing the highest death rate from COVID-19 in the world, exposing much of the inequality that persisted since the Fujimori administration[78] and triggering an economic crisis that led toVizcara's removal from the presidency by Congress.[97] Widely seen as a coup by Congress, its head, the newly seated PresidentManuel Merino, facedprotests across the country, and after five days, Merino resigned from the presidency.[98] Merino was replaced by PresidentFrancisco Sagasti, who led a provisional, centrist government, and enforced many of Vizcarra's former policies.[99]Elections were held on 11 April 2021, andPedro Castillo of theFree Peru party won the first round, followed closely by Keiko Fujimori, with right-wing parties allied with Fujimori maintaining positions in Congress.[100]
On 28 July 2021, Pedro Castillo was sworn in as the newpresident of Peru after a narrow win in a tightly contested run-off election.[101] That same year, Peru celebrated thebicentenary of independence.[102] Castillofaced multiple impeachment votes during his presidency from the right-wing controlled Congress and on 7 December 2022, just hours before Congress was set to begin athird impeachment effort, Castillo tried to prevent this by attempting todissolve the opposition-controlled legislature and create an "exceptional emergency government." In response, Congress quickly held an emergency session on the same day, during which it voted 101–6 (with 10 abstentions) to remove Castillo from office and replace him with Vice PresidentDina Boluarte. She became the country's first female president.[103][104] Castillo was arrested after trying to flee to theMexican embassy and was charged with the crime of rebellion.[105]
The Boluarte government proved unpopular as she allied herself with the right-wing Congress and the military, betraying her constituents.[16][106] This resentment led to the2022–2023 Peruvian political protests, which sought the removal of Boluarte and Congress, immediate general elections and the writing of a new constitution. Authorities responded to the protests violently, with theAyacucho massacre andJuliaca massacre occurring at this time, resulting with the most violence experienced in the nation in over two decades.[16] The strong response by the political elite in Lima raised concerns that they sought to establish anauthoritarian orcivilian-military government.[16][106][107] On 10 October 2025, Peru’s congress removed President Dina Boluarte from office andJose Jeri was sworn in as Peru’s interim president.[108]
Peru is located on the central western coast of South America facing the Pacific Ocean. It lies wholly in theSouthern Hemisphere, its northernmost extreme reaching to 1.8 minutes of latitude or about 3.3 km (2.1 mi) south of theequator, covers 1,285,216 km2 (496,225 sq mi) of western South America. It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. TheAndes run parallel to the Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used to describe the country geographically.[109]
Thecosta (coast), to the west, is a narrow, largely arid plain except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. Thesierra (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes theAltiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft)Huascarán.[110] The third region is theselva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by theAmazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60 percent of the country's area is located within this region.[111] The country has fifty-four hydrographic basins, fifty-two of which are small coastal basins that discharge their waters into the Pacific Ocean. The final two are theendorheic basin ofLake Titicaca, and the Amazon basin, which empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Both are delimited by the Andes mountain range. The Amazon basin is particularly noteworthy as it is the source of the Amazon, which at 6,872 km (4,270 mi), is the longest river in the world, and covers 75% of Peruvian territory. Peru contains 4% of the planet's freshwater.
Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of threebasins. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of theAmazon River have a much larger flow, and are longer and less steep once they exit thesierra. Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow.[112] Peru's longest rivers are theUcayali, theMarañón, thePutumayo, theYavarí, theHuallaga, theUrubamba, theMantaro, and the Amazon.[113]
The largestlake in Peru, Lake Titicaca between Peru and Bolivia high in the Andes, is also the largest of South America.[114] The largestreservoirs, all in the coastal region of Peru, are thePoechos, Tinajones, San Lorenzo, and El Fraile reservoirs.[115]
Although Peru is located entirely in thetropics, the combination of tropical latitude, mountain ranges, topography variations, and two ocean currents (Humboldt andEl Niño) gives Peru a large diversity of climates. Elevations above sea level in the country range from −37 to 6,778 m (−121 to 22,238 ft) and precipitation ranges from less than 20 mm (0.79 in) annually in desert areas to more than 8,000 mm (310 in) in tropical rainforest areas.
Due to its geography, Peru can be divided into three main climates. The unbroken and relatively slim coastal region has moderate temperatures, low precipitation, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.[116] In the mountain region, which covers almost a third of the country, rain is frequent in summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.[117] ThePeruvian Amazon, covering more than half of the total area of Peru, is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.[118]
Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003, 5,855 of themendemic,[119] and is one of themegadiverse countries.
Peru has over 1,800species of birds (120endemic), over 500 species ofmammals, over 300 species of reptiles, and over 1,000 species of freshwaterfishes.[120][121] The hundreds of mammals include rare species like thepuma,jaguar andspectacled bear. The birds of Peru produce large amounts ofguano, an economically important export. The Pacific holds large quantities ofsea bass,flounder,anchovies,tuna,crustaceans, andshellfish, and is home to many sharks,sperm whales, and whales.[122] The invertebrate fauna is far less inventoried; at least beetles (Coleoptera) have been surveyed in the "Beetles of Peru" project, led by Caroline S. Chaboo, University of Nebraska, USA and this revealved more than 12,000 documented and many new species for Peru.[123]
Peru also has an equally diverseflora. The coastal deserts produce little more thancacti, apart from hillyfog oases and river valleys that contain unique plant life.[124]The Highlands above the tree-line known aspuna is home to bushes,cactus, drought-resistant plants such asichu, and the largest species ofbromeliad – the spectacularPuya raimondii.
The Peruvian government isseparated into three branches:
Legislature: the unicameralCongress of Peru, consisting of 130 members of Congress (on a basis of population), the president of Congress, and the Permanent Commission;[129]
In the Congress of Peru there are 130 members, from 25administrative divisions, determined by respective population and elected to five-year terms.[134] Bills are proposed by the executive andlegislative powers and become law through aplurality vote in Congress.[135] The judiciary is nominally independent,[136] though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history.[137] The Congress of Peru can also pass amotion of no confidence,censure ministers, as well as initiate impeachments andconvict executives.[138][139] Due to broadly interpretedimpeachment wording in the1993 Constitution of Peru, the legislative branch can impeach the president without cause, effectively making the executive branch subject to Congress.[91][92][93][94] In recent history, the legislative body has passed semi-successful impeachment and two successful impeachments;Alberto Fujimori resigned prior to removal in 2000,Pedro Pablo Kuczynskiresigned in 2018,Martín Vizcarra wasremoved from office in 2020 andPedro Castillo was removed in 2022.[140] Following a ruling in February 2023 by theConstitutional Court of Peru, whose members are elected by Congress, judicial oversight of the legislative body was also removed by the court, essentially giving Congress absolute control of Peru's government.[141][142]
Themost recent general election was held on 11 April 2021 and resulted inFree Peru winning the most seats in Congress, although it fell well short of a majority.[147] A presidential runoff betweenPedro Castillo andKeiko Fujimori took place on 5 June 2021 and resulted in the victory of Castillo.[148]
Many Peruvian presidents have been removed from office or imprisoned on allegations of corruption from the 1990s into the 2020s. Alberto Fujimori was serving a 25-year prison sentence for commandingdeath squads that killed civilians in a counterinsurgency campaign during his tenure (1990–2000). He was later also found guilty of corruption. Former president Alan García (1985–1990 and 2006–2011) killed himself in April 2019 when Peruvian police arrived to arrest him over allegations he participated in theOdebrecht bribery scheme. Former president Alejandro Toledo is accused of allegedly receiving bribes from Brazilian construction firmOdebrecht during his government (2001–2006). Former president Ollanta Humala (2011–2016) is also under investigation for allegedly receiving bribes from Odebrecht during his presidential election campaign. Humala's successor Pedro Pablo Kuczynski (2016–2018) remains under house arrest while prosecutors investigate him for favoring contracts with Odebrecht. Former president Martín Vizcarra (2018–2020) was controversially ousted by Congress after media reports alleged he had received bribes while he was a regional governor years earlier.[149][150]
Corruption is also widespread throughout Congress as legislators use their office forparliamentary immunity and other benefits, despite a large majority of Peruvians disapproving of Congress and its behavior.[151][152]
The governor constitutes theexecutive body, proposesbudgets, and creates decrees, resolutions, and regional programs.[156] The Regional Council, the region'slegislative body, debates and votes on budgets, supervises regional officials, and can vote to remove the governor, deputy governor, or any member of the council from office. The regional governor and the Regional Council serve a term of four years, without immediate reelection. These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.[157][158]
Provinces such asLima are administered by amunicipal council, headed by a mayor.[159] The goal of devolving power to regional and municipal governments was among others to improve popular participation. NGOs played an important role in thedecentralization process and still influence local politics.[160][161]
Peru has the fourth largest military in Latin America. Peru's armed forces – theArmed Forces of Peru – comprise thePeruvian Navy (MGP), thePeruvian Army (EP), and thePeruvian Air Force (FAP), in total numbering 392,660 personnel (including 120,660 regulars and 272,000 reservists) as of 2020.[173] Their primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.[174]
Their functions are separated by branch:
ThePeruvian Army is made up of the Chief of Staff, two Control Bodies, two Support Bodies, five Military Regions and six Command Rooms.
ThePeruvian Navy is in charge of the country's maritime, river, and lake defense. It is made up of 26,000 sailors. Personnel are divided into three levels: superior personnel, junior personnel and seafarers.
The military is governed by both thecommander in chief,Ministry of Defense, andJoint Command of the Armed Forces (CCFFAA). The CCFFAA has subordinates to the Operational Commands and Special Commands, with which it carries out the military operations that are required for the defense and the fulfillment of the tasks that the executive power provides.[175]Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced byvoluntary military service.[176] TheNational Police of Peru is often classified as a part of the armed forces. However, it has a distinct organizational structure and a purely civilian mandate. Its training and operations, particularly over the past two decades as an anti-terrorist unit, have imbued it with distinctly military traits, leading to its portrayal as a de facto fourth military branch with substantial land, sea, and air capabilities, and a work force of around 140,000 individuals.The Peruvian armed forces report through the Ministry of Defense, while the National Police of Peru reports through the Ministry of Interior.[177][174]
Since the end of thecrisis in Peru in 2000, the federal government has significantly reduced annual spending in defense.[178] In the 2016–2017 budget, defense spending has constituted 1.1% of GDP ($2.3 billion), the second lowest spending relative to GDP in South America following Argentina.[179] More recently, the Armed Forces of Peru have been used incivil defense. In 2020, Peru used its military personnel and even reservists to enforce the strictquarantine measures placed during theCOVID-19 pandemic.[180]
The economy of Peru is the 48th largest in the world (ranked byPurchasing Power Parity (PPP)),[181] and the income level is classified asupper middle by the World Bank.[182] Peru is, as of 2011[update], one of the world's fastest-growing economies owing to an economic boom experienced during the 2000s.[183] It has an above-averageHuman Development Index (HDI) of 0.76 which has seen steady improvement over the years leading up to 2024, which has seen another 0.007 points improvement.[184] Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which providehard currency to finance imports and external debt payments.[185] Although they have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitariandistribution of income have proven elusive.[186] According to 2015 data, 19.3% of its total population is poor, including 9% that lives in extreme poverty.[187] Inflation in 2012 was the lowest in Latin America at only 1.8%, but increased in 2013 as oil and commodity prices rose; as of 2014[update] it stands at 2.5%,[188] and 8.6% in 2023.[189] The unemployment rate was 3.6% in 2012.
As of 2010[update]Services account for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by manufacturing (22.3%), extractive industries (15%), and taxes (9.7%).[192] Recent economic growth had been fueled bymacroeconomic stability, improvedterms of trade, and rising investment and consumption.[193] Trade was expected to increase further after the implementation of afree trade agreement with the United States signed on 12 April 2006.[194] Peru's main exports were copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners were the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.[195]
Informal workers represent, in 2019, 70% of the labour market according to the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics (INEI). In 2016, almost three million children and adolescents worked in the informal sector.[196]
Mining
Yanacocha Mine
The country is heavily dependent onmining for the export of raw materials, which represented 61.3% of exports in 2023.[197] In 2019, the country was the world's second largest producer ofcopper[198] andzinc,[199] eighth largest producer ofgold,[200] third largest producer oflead,[201] the fourth largest producer oftin,[202] the fifth largest producer ofboron,[203] and the fourth largest producer ofmolybdenum[204] – not to mention gas and of oil. In 2023, it was the third largest producer of silver globally.[205] The country has an expectant competitive position in global mining, maintaining mining leadership in Latin America and a solid mining history and trajectory little industrialized; Peru suffers from the international variation of commodity prices.[206]
The Yanacocha mine inCajamarca is the main source of gold extraction in Peru. It is considered the largest gold mine in South America and the second largest in the world. In 2005, 3,333,088 ounces (94,491,500 g) of gold were produced. An indicator of mining growth can be seen in mining exports, having grown from US$1,447 million in 1990[207] to US$39,639 million in 2023.[197]
According to a report by the UNFood and Agriculture Organization (FAO) published in August 2022, half of Peru's population is moderatelyfood insecure (16.6 million people), and more than 20% (6.8 million people), are severely food insecure: they go without food for a whole day, or even several days.[209][210]
The director of FAO Peru stresses that "this is the great paradox of a country that has enough food for its population. Peru is a net producer of food and one of the major agro-exporting powers in the region. Food insecurity is due to highsocial inequality and low wages, with Peru's minimum wage being one of the lowest in South America and a large informal sector. According to the FAO, the small farmers themselves suffer from hunger. Poorly paid, they also suffer from the impacts ofclimate change and face the problem ofdrug trafficking on their land and mining activity that exhausts the soil."[209][210]
Huacachina, inIca, the only natural oasis in South America
Tourism constitutes the third largest industry in Peru, behind fishing and mining. Tourism is mainly directed towards archaeological monuments, as it has more than one hundred thousand archaeological sites. According to a study by the Peruvian government, the satisfaction rate of tourists after visiting Peru is 94%. Peru has become one of the largest tourist destinations in the Americas and is the fastest growing industry in the country, growing annually at a rate of 25% over the last five years, the highest growth rate of any other country in South America.
Tourism has an impact of 7% of Peru's GDP, it is regulated and stimulated by the Commission for the Promotion of Peru for Exports and Tourism under the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism. For this reason, in 2011 Marca Perú was created, which is an initiative of the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism in association with Peruvian companies and startups to promote the purchase and consumption of products created in the country. The pillars of this initiative are: exports, tourism and investments. Tourism employs 11% of the country's economically active population (484 000 direct jobs and 340,000 indirect jobs), most of them in hospitality and transportation. Peru is known to be perfect for cultural, eco, adventure, gastronomic, beach, and luxury travel.
The places most visited by tourists are the cities ofLima and its historic center,Cusco, which is characterized by itsInca and colonial architecture but its main attractions are theSacred Valley of the Incas andMachu Picchu. Other famous places in Cusco includeQorikancha,Ollantaytambo,Písac and many more.Arequipa is also a large tourist destination, for the historic center, also for theColca Canyon and finallyPuno throughLake Titicaca. The main tourist circuit of the country is the southern circuit, which includes cities such as;Ica,Nazca,Pisco, Paracas,Ayacucho,Puerto Maldonado and others with architectural, cultural and natural attractions. The second most important route is theCallejón de Huaylas, in the department of Áncash, headquarters of adventure tourism and the main point of reference for New Andean gastronomy. Peru has 14World Heritage Sites and 11 national parks.
Peru has many other tourist routes. Among these are those of theMantaro River valley with the city ofHuancayo as one of its axis, and theTarma Valley as another axis, which in turn is the entrance to the central jungle and the northern city ofTrujillo whereChan Chan is located, the largest adobe citadel in the world, the traditional spa ofHuanchaco and the Huacas del Sol and de la Luna belonging to theChimú culture.Chiclayo,Piura and the rainforest cityIquitos are also very popular destinations. According to the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism, the visit of foreign tourists increased by 7% during 2015 and would have generated US$3.5 billion in foreign currency for the country.
Industry
TheWorld Bank lists the top producing countries each year, based on the total value of production. According to the 2019 list, Peru has the 50th most valuable industry in the world ($28.7 billion).[211]
In 2011 and 2016 Peru was the world's largest supplier offishmeal.[212] It is also the world's leading producer of alpaca wool, and the most important exporter of cotton textile garments in Latin America, and due to its natural wealth, it is an excellent place for the development of the polymer industry worldwide. The country is in a stage of economic growth and it is expected, in light of the agreements and treaties signed in free trade areas, to become one of the most attractive South American nations for developing business.
Peru's road network in 2021 consisted of 175,589 km (109,106 mi) of highways, with 29,579 km (18,380 mi) paved.[213] Some highways in the country that stand out are thePan American Highway andInteroceanic Highway. In 2016, the country had 827 km (514 mi) ofduplicated highways, and was investing in more duplications: the plan was to have 2,634 km (1,637 mi) in 2026.[214] The country's rail network is small: in 2018, the country only had 1,939 km (1,205 mi) of railways.[215]
Peru has important international airports such asLima,Cuzco andArequipa. The 10 busiest airports in South America in 2017 were São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago (Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasília (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Buenos Aires-Aeroparque (Argentina), Buenos Aires-Ezeiza (Argentina) and Minas Gerais (Brazil).[216] Multiple airport expansions are currently under construction across Peru, the two main ones being theJorge Chávez International Airport andChinchero International Airport.Jorge Chávez International Airport, the largest in Peru, is undergoing an expansion that includes the construction of a new runway, control tower and a new terminal, along with new hotels, logistical buildings and cargo sector. Altogether, they make up the Ciudad Aeropuerto, Airport City. It will allow transit of 40 million passengers every year and will be completed in December 2024. Another ambitious airport project is theChinchero International Airport inCusco. The new airport is set to replace the oldAlejandro Velasco Astete International Airport and help passengers bypass a stop in Lima by introducing international routes.
Peru has important ports inCallao,Ilo andMatarani. The 15 most active ports in South America in 2018 were: Port of Santos (Brazil), Port of Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil (Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile), Buenaventura (Colombia), Itajaí (Brazil), Valparaíso (Chile), Montevideo (Uruguay), Paranaguá (Brazil), Rio Grande (Brazil), São Francisco do Sul (Brazil), Manaus (Brazil) and Coronel (Chile).[217] ThePort of Callao is currently the largest port in Peru, but will soon be overtaken by thePort of Chancay, a joint project betweenChina and Peru inChancay, north ofLima. When completed, the port will become the largest in Latin America.[218] Officially inaugurated on 14 November 2024, the Port of Chancay is a key gateway for trade between South America and Asia, significantly reducing shipping time across the Pacific.[219]
The electricity sector has experienced notable improvements in recent years. The number of homes with electric lighting grew from 82% in 2007 to 94.2% in 2016, while the quality and effectiveness of service provision also improved. Current electricity generation capacity is evenly divided between thermal energy and hydroelectric energy sources. The National Interconnected Electrical System supplies 85% of the connected population, with several isolated systems that cover the rest of the country. Peruvian electricity production totalled 5.1 TWh in the month of October 2022. Of these, 52% came from hydroelectric plants, 38.3% from thermoelectric plants (which use oil, gas and coal) and 9.7% of renewable energy plants like: wind, solar, and others.[220]
In 2021, Peru had, in terms of installed renewable electricity, 5,490 MW in hydropower (34th largest in the world), 409 MW in wind power (49th largest in the world), 336 MW in solar power (62nd largest in the world), and 185 MW in biomass.[221]
With a population of 33,396,698 inhabitants according to estimates and projections of the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics until the year 2022, Peru is thefourth most populous country in South America.[222] Its population density is 25.79 inhabitants per square kilometre (66.8/sq mi) and its annual growth rate is 1.1%. 58.8% of the Peruvian population lives on the coast, 27% in the mountains, and 14.2% in the jungle. In 2020, 27 million Peruvians lived in urban areas, which represents 80% of the population. Peru had a population of seven million residents in 1940; between 1950 and 2000, the demographic growth rate of Peru declined from 2.6% to 1.6%, with the population being expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.[223][224]
As of 2017[update], 79.3% lived in urban areas and 20.7% in rural areas.[225] Major cities include theLima metropolitan area (home to over 9.8 million people),Arequipa,Trujillo,Chiclayo,Piura,Iquitos,Cusco,Chimbote, andHuancayo; all reported more than 250,000 inhabitants in the2007 census.[226] Arequipa is Peru's second largest city, with an estimated population of 1,177,000, while Trujillo is the third largest city with 1,048,000. There are 15 knownuncontacted Amerindian tribes in Peru.[227] Peru has alife expectancy of 75.0 years (72.4 for males and 77.7 for females) according to the latest data for the year 2016 from theWorld Bank.[228]
The economically active population is equivalent to 53.78% of the total population, or about 17,830,500 inhabitants. The largest cities are located on the coast, such as Sullana, Piura, Chiclayo, Trujillo, Chimbote, Lima and Ica. In the mountains, the cities of Arequipa, Cusco, Huancayo, Cajamarca and Juliaca stand out. Finally, in the jungle,Iquitos is the most important, followed byPucallpa,Tarapoto,Moyobamba and Tingo María.
Peru is amultiethnic nation formed by successive waves of different peoples over five centuries.Amerindians inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before theSpanish conquest in the 16th century; according to historianNoble David Cook, their population decreased from nearly 5–9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because ofinfectious diseases.[231]
The 2017 census for the first time included a question on ethnic self-identification. According to the results, 60.2% of the people identified themselves asmestizo, 22.3% identified themselves asQuechua, 5.9% identified themselves aswhite, 3.6% identified themselves asblack, 2.4% identified themselves asAymara, 2.3% identified themselves as other ethnic groups, and 3.3% did not declare their ethnicity.[232] In the different stages of Peru's history, ethnic composition has varied, with a continuous decline in the Amerindian proportion, due to multiple socioeconomic and sociocultural factors, birth controls, high mortality rates, exclusion, among others. The country tends towards a slow generalized miscegenation of all ethnic segments that began from the beginning of the colonial period to the present day. Because the majority of the Peruvian population has become mestizo, some feel a superiority complex towards the natives of the mountains and the jungle, either because they do not pronounce a word properly, or simply because they do not know how to read a text well, leading to a kind ofracism towards them.
During theViceroyalty of Peru, Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers, mixing widely with each other and with the native population, mainly on the coast (the mountains and the jungle maintained a very little mixed indigenous majority). After independence there was European immigration from Spain, Italy, England, France, and Germany, along with the Middle East.[233] Peru freed its black slaves in 1854.[234] Chinese and Japanese arrived in the 1850s as laborers following the end of slavery, and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society.[235] The first Croatian immigrants came to Peru in 1573 from Dubrovnik.[236]
Quechua travelers in the Andes
In recent decades, Peruvian emigration figures have shown a marked growth and currently more than 10% of Peruvians are residing outside the country. This migratory movement has been accentuated since the year 2000, the official figure of Peruvian emigrants is 2,444,634 from 1990 to 2011. This without considering the descendant population, and the illegal floating population that is essentially found in neighboring countries. It is estimated that in the last 82 years, more than 3.5 million Peruvians emigrated from the country. With respect to the main countries of destination for Peruvian emigrants between 1990 and 2011, these were: the United States (31.5%), Spain (16%), Argentina (14.3%), Italy (10.1%), Chile (8.8%), Japan (4.1%) and Venezuela (3.8%). 75% of Peruvian emigrants are between 19 and 49 years old, with a slight majority of women. For the most part, Peruvian emigration is a labor migration.[citation needed]
Throughout its history, Peru has received migrations from Europe (mainly Spain and Italy; and to a lesser extent from France, United Kingdom, and from other Central European countries and Southern), sub-Saharan Africa and East Asia (China and Japan). It currently receives a large number of Venezuelan immigrants, who are escaping the economic crisis that their country is suffering.[citation needed]
From 2016, the flow of Venezuelans to Peru increased, going from 6615 residents in that year to around 820,000 until mid-June 2019, being the most important migratory wave of the 21st century in the country. Peru is home to the second largest number of Venezuelan immigrants after Colombia.[237]
According to the Peruvian Constitution of 1993, Peru's official languages areSpanish and, in areas where they predominate,Quechua and other Indigenous languages. Spanish is spoken natively by 82.6% of the population, and coexists with several native languages, of which the most important is theQuechuan languages, spoken by 16.92% of the population, 1.7%Aymara and 0.8% speaking another native language. In the urban areas of the country, especially in the coastal region, monolingualism of Spanish predominates; while in many rural areas of the country, particularly in the Amazon, multilingual populations dominate.[238]
Spanish language is used by the government and is the mainstream language of the country, which is used by the media and in educational systems and commerce. Amerindians who live in the Andean highlands speak Quechua and Aymara and are ethnically distinct from the diverse Indigenous groups who live on the eastern side of the Andes and in the tropical lowlands adjacent to theAmazon basin.[239]
Peru's distinct geographical regions are mirrored in a language divide between the coast where Spanish is more predominant over the Amerindian languages, and the more diverse traditional Andean cultures of the mountains and highlands. The Indigenous populations east of the Andes speak various languages and dialects. Some of these groups still adhere to traditional Indigenous languages, while others have been almost completely assimilated into the Spanish language. There has been an increasing and organized effort to teach Quechua in public schools in the areas where Quechua is spoken. In the Peruvian Amazon, numerous Indigenous languages are spoken, includingAsháninka,Bora, andAguaruna.[239]
Roman Catholicism has been the predominant faith in Peru for centuries, albeit religious practices have a high degree ofsyncretism with Indigenous traditions.[240] Two of its universities,Pontifical Catholic University of Peru and Universidad Católica San Pablo, are among the country's five top universities.[241] As of the 2017 census, 76% of the population over 12 years old described themselves asCatholic; 14.1% asEvangelical; 4.8% as Protestant, Jewish,Latter-day Saints, andJehovah's Witnesses; and 5.1% as nonreligious.[242] In 2025, naturalized Peruvian citizenCardinal Robert Francis Prevost becamePope Leo XIV.[243]
Amerindian religious traditions continue to play a major role in the beliefs of Peruvians. Catholic festivities likeCorpus Christi,Holy Week and Christmas sometimes blend with Amerindian traditions. Pre-Columbian Amerindian festivities remain widespread;Inti Raymi, an ancient Inca festival, is still celebrated, especially in rural communities.[citation needed]
In Peru, education is under the jurisdiction of theMinistry of Education, which is in charge of formulating, implementing and supervising the national education policy. According to the Political Constitution of Peru, education iscompulsory and free in public schools for the initial, primary and secondary levels.[244][245] It is also free in public universities for students who have satisfactory academic performance and pass the admission exams. Most of the schools in Peru areprivate andreligious. Peru's literacy rate is estimated at 92.9% as of 2007; this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%).[246]
Education is divided into different levels: Initial education corresponds to the period between zero and five years of age, and is in charge of cribs whose purpose is to provide children with the stimulation required for their comprehensive development and the gardens that offer technical-pedagogical activities. Primary education begins with the first cycle, made up of the first and second grades. The entry age for children is six years old. This level begins in the first grade and ends in the sixth grade of primary school. Secondary education consists of five years, from first to fifth year. Then comes higher education that can be technical, productive, technological or university. To enter universities it is essential to take an admission exam, although the difficulty of this depends on the requirements of the university.
Peru is home to one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in the New World. TheNational University of San Marcos, founded on 12 May 1551, during theViceroyalty of Peru, is the first officially established and the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas.[247] The University of San Marcos is known to be the best in Peru and among the best in South America.
According to thePan American Health Organization, life expectancy for men is 72.6 years, while for women it is 77.9 years. Infant mortality is eighteen per thousand births, having been reduced 76% from 1990 to 2011.[248] The main causes of death of Peruvians areneoplasm,influenza andpneumonia, bacterial diseases, ischemic heart diseases and cerebrovascular diseases. According to the 2017 Population and Housing Censuses, 75.5% of the population has some type of health insurance, that is, 22,173,663 people, despite this, 24.5% of the population does not have any type of insurance.[249]
Toponyms
Many of the Peruviantoponyms haveIndigenous sources. In the Andes communities ofAncash,Cusco andPuno, Quechua or Aymara names are overwhelmingly predominant. Their Spanish-based orthography, however, is in conflict with the normalized alphabets of these languages. According to Article 20 ofDecreto Supremo No 004-2016-MC (Supreme Decree) which approves the Regulations to Law 29735, published in the official newspaper El Peruano on 22 July 2016, adequate spellings of thetoponyms in the normalized alphabets of the Indigenous languages must progressively be proposed with the aim of standardizing the naming used by the National Geographic Institute(Instituto Geográfico Nacional, IGN). The National Geographic Institute realizes the necessary changes in the official maps of Peru.[250]
Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Iberian and Andean traditions,[252] though it has also been influenced by various European, Asian, and African ethnic groups.Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture ofPre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and madearchitectural achievements including the construction ofMachu Picchu.Baroque dominated colonial art, though modified by Native traditions.[253]
During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of theCusco School are representative.[254] Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence ofIndigenismo in the early 20th century.[255] Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has beeneclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.
Peruvian art has its origin in theAndean civilizations. These civilizations arose in the territory of modern Peru before thearrival of the Spanish. Peruvian art incorporated European elements after the Spanish conquest and continued to evolve throughout the centuries up to the modern day.[citation needed]
Peru's earliest artwork came from theCupisnique culture, which was concentrated on the Pacific coast, and the Chavín culture, which was largely north ofLima between the Andean mountain ranges of theCordillera Negra and theCordillera Blanca. Decorative work from this era, approximately the 9th century BCE, was symbolic and religious in nature. The artists worked with gold, silver, andceramics to create a variety of sculptures and relief carvings. These civilizations were also known for their architecture and wood sculptures.
TheParacas Cavernas and ParacasNecropolis cultures developed on the south coast of Peru between the 9th century BCE and the 2nd century CE. Paracas Cavernas produced complex polychrome and monochrome ceramics with religious representations. Burials from the Paracas Necropolis also yielded complex textiles, many produced with sophisticated geometric patterns. The 3rd century BCE saw the flowering of the urban culture,Moche, in theLambayeque region. The Moche culture produced architectural works, such as theHuacas del Sol y de la Luna and theHuaca Rajada ofSipán. They were experts atcultivation in terraces andhydraulic engineering and produced original ceramics, textiles, pictorial and sculptural works. Another urban culture, theWari civilization, flourished between the 8th and 12th centuries inAyacucho. Their centralized town planning was extended to other areas, such asPachacamac,Cajamarquilla andWari Willka. Between the 9th and 13th centuries CE, the military urbanTiwanaku empire rose by the borders ofLake Titicaca. Centered around a city of the same name in modern-day Bolivia, the Tiwanaku introduced stone architecture and sculpture of a monumental type. These works of architecture and art were made possible by the Tiwanaku's developingbronze, which enabled them to make the necessary tools.
Urban architecture reached a new height between the 14th and 15th centuries in theChimú Culture. The Chimú built the city ofChan Chan in the valley of theMoche River, inLa Libertad. The Chimú were skilledgoldsmiths and created remarkable works ofhydraulic engineering. TheInca Civilization, which united Peru under its hegemony in the centuries immediately preceding the Spanish conquest, incorporated into their own works a great part of the cultural legacy of the civilizations which preceded it. Important relics of their artwork and architecture can be seen in cities likeCusco, architectural remains likeSacsayhuamán andMachu Picchu and stone pavements that united Cusco with the rest of the Inca Empire.
Peruvian sculpture and painting began to define themselves from theateliers founded by monks, who were strongly influenced by the Sevillian Baroque School. In this context, the stalls of theCathedral choir, the fountain of the Main Square of Lima both byPedro de Noguera, and a great part of the colonial production were registered. The first center of art established by the Spanish was theCuzco School that taughtQuechua artists European painting styles.Diego Quispe Tito (1611–1681) was one of the first members of the Cuzco school andMarcos Zapata (1710–1773) was one of the last.[256]
Painting of this time reflected a synthesis of European and Indigenous influences, as is evident in the portrait of prisoner Atahualpa, by D. de Mora or in the canvases of the ItaliansMateo Pérez de Alesio and Angelino Medoro, the Spaniards Francisco Bejarano and J. de Illescas and the Creole J. Rodriguez.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, theBaroque andRococo styles, with their heavy ornamentation and predominantly curved lines, also dominated the fields of architecture andplastic arts, as for example on the walls of theMonastery of San Francisco in Lima.
Peruvian literature refers not only to literature produced in the modern Republic of Peru, but also literature produced in theViceroyalty of Peru during the colonial period, and tooral traditions created by diverse ethnic groups living in what is now Peru during thepre-Columbian period, such as theQuechua, theAymara and theChanka people.
Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression includedchronicles andreligious literature. Some of the first chroniclers were writers and soldiers who were responsible for producing official transcripts of military expeditions. There was also a small group of non-official chroniclers or personal diarists who provided unique personal insights on the effort to subdue and colonize the region. For the most part, these chroniclers all wrote from the perspective of Spanishconquistadores, whose mission was to "civilize" and "reveal the true faith" to the native peoples of Peru. Among the official Spanish chroniclers wereFrancisco Xerez, personal secretary of Pizarro, who wrote theVerdadera relación de la conquista del Perú y provincia del Cuzco llamada la Nueva Castilla (The True Narrative of the Conquest of Peru and of Cuzco Province, Otherwise Known as New Castile), in 1534. Indigenous chroniclers were also known, such asTitu Cusi Yupanqui who, after familiarizing himself with Spanish culture, wroteRelación de cómo los españoles entraron en Pirú y el subceso que tuvo Mango Inca en el tiempo en que entre ellos vivió (The Narrative of How the Spaniards Entered Piru and Mango Inca's Experiences while Living Among Them) in 1570.
After independence,Costumbrism andRomanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works ofRicardo Palma.[257] The early 20th century'sIndigenismo movement was led by such writers asCiro Alegría[258] andJosé María Arguedas.[259] Theavant-garde movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the establishment of magazinesColónida andAmauta, the latter founded in 1926 by the prominent socialist essayistJosé Carlos Mariátegui. The influential poetCésar Vallejo, who was one of its collaborators, wrote modernist and often politically engaged verse in the 1920s and 1930s. Modern Peruvian literature is recognized thanks to authors such asNobel laureateMario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of theLatin American Boom.[260]
Peruvian music hasAndean,Spanish, andAfrican roots.[261] In pre-Columbian times, musical expressions varied widely in each region; thequena and thetinya were two common instruments.[262] Spaniards introduced new instruments, such as the guitar and the harp, which led to the development of crossbred instruments like thecharango.[263] African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and thecajón, a percussion instrument.Peruvian folk dances includemarinera,tondero,zamacueca,diablada andhuayno.[264]
Peruvian music is dominated by the nationalinstrument, thecharango. The charango is a member of thelute family of instruments and was invented duringcolonial times by musicians imitating the Spanishvihuela. In the Canas andTiticaca regions, the charango is used in courtship rituals, symbolically invoking mermaids with the instrument to lure the woman to the male performers. Until the 1960s, the charango was denigrated as an instrument of the rural poor. After the revolution in 1959, which built theIndigenismo movement (1910–1940), the charango was popularized among other performers. Variants include thewalaycho,chillador,chinlili, and the larger and lower-tunedcharangon.
While the Spanish guitar is widely played, so too is the Spanish-in-originbandurria. Unlike the guitar, it has been transformed by Peruvian players over the years, changing from a 12-string, 6-course instrument to one having 12 to 16 strings in a mere four courses. Violins andharps, also of European origin, are also played. A very famous instrument from Peru is thepan flute, dating back to Incan times. It is made of hollow bamboo tubes and is widely played in the Peruvian Andes.
While the Peruvian film industry has not been nearly as prolific as that of some other Latin American countries, some Peruvian movies have enjoyed regional success. Historically, the cinema of Peru began in Iquitos in 1932 with Antonio Wong Rengifo (alongside a significant early film billboard from 1900) due to therubber boom and the influx of foreigners bringing technology to the city. This led to the development of an extensive and distinctive filmography, characterized by a style different from the films produced in the capital,Lima.
Peru also produced the first animated 3-D film in Latin America,Piratas en el Callao. This film is set in the historical port city ofCallao, which during colonial times had to defend itself against attacks by Dutch and British privateers seeking to undercut Spain's trade with its colonies. The film was produced by thePeruvian company Alpamayo Entertainment, which made a second 3-D film one year later:Dragones: Destino de Fuego.
In February 2006, the filmMadeinusa, produced as a joint venture between Peru and Spain and directed byClaudia Llosa, was set in an imaginary Andean village and describes the stagnating life of Madeinusa performed byMagaly Solier and the traumas of post-civil war Peru.
Ceviche is a popular lime-marinated seafood dish which originated in Peru.
Because of the Spanish expedition and discovery of America, explorers started theColumbian exchange which included unknown food in the Old World, including potatoes, tomatoes, and maize. Modern Indigenous Peruvian food often includes corn, potatoes, andchilies. There are now more than 3,000 kinds of potatoes grown on Peruvian terrain, according to Peru'sInstituto Peruano de la Papa.[265]ModernPeruvian cuisine blendsAmerindian andSpanish food with strong influences from Chinese, African, Arab, Italian, and Japanese cooking.[266] Common dishes includeanticuchos,ceviche, andpachamanca. Peru's varied climate allows the growth of diverse plants and animals good for cooking.[267] Peru is known to have one of the best cuisines in the world. The capital, Lima, is home toCentral Restaurante, which is one of theWorld's Best Restaurants and serves various Peruvian dishes from each geographical part of the country, theCosta (coast),Sierra (mountains) andSelva (rainforest).
Peruvian cuisine reflects local practices and ingredients – including influences from the Indigenous population such as theInca and cuisines introduced by colonizers and immigrants. Without the familiar ingredients from their home countries, immigrants modified their traditional cuisines by using ingredients available in Peru. The four traditional staples of Peruvian cuisine arecorn,potatoes and othertubers,Amaranthaceaes (quinoa,kañiwa andkiwicha) andlegumes (beans andlupins). Staples brought by the Spanish include rice, wheat, and meats (beef, pork, and chicken). Many traditional foods – such asquinoa,kiwicha,chili peppers, and several roots andtubers have increased in popularity in recent decades, reflecting a revival of interest in Native Peruvian foods and culinary techniques. It is also common to see traditional cuisines being served with a modern flair in towns likeCusco, where tourists come to visit. ChefGastón Acurio has become well known for raising awareness of local ingredients.
The idea of sport dates back to the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, though many games and other native forms of entertainment predated the colonial era. More recently, the American ideology of physical education linked to commercialization has had widespread appeal. Sports in the country are divided into several sports federations (one for each sports practice) that are under the tutelage of the highest state entity to regulate their practice, the Peruvian Sports Institute (IPD). Most of the sports federations are based in theVilla Deportiva Nacional in Lima. Peru's largest stadium isEstadio Monumental "U" which has a capacity of over 80,000, making it the second largest stadium in South America. The country's national stadium is theEstadio Nacional. Peru has hosted various sporting events, such as the2004 Copa América,2005 FIFA U-17 World Championship,2013 and2024 Bolivarian Games, and the largest sporting event held by the country, the2019 Pan American Games. The national sport of Peru isPaleta frontón, which has developed in the 16th century in Lima.
^The2017 National Census included, for the first time, a question ofethnic self-identification that was addressed to people aged 12 and over considering elements such as their ancestry, their customs and their family origin to visualize and better understand the cultural reality of the country.
^ The question about religion included in the2017 National Census was addressed to people aged 12 and over.
^The government in each department is referred to as "regional" governments despite being departments.
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