Movatterモバイル変換

[0]ホーム
URL:

Jump to content
WikipediaThe Free Encyclopedia
Search

Persian alphabet

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected fromPerso-Arabic)
Writing system used for the Persian language
For other scripts that have been used to write the Persian language, seePersian language § Orthography.
This article has multiple issues. Please helpimprove it or discuss these issues on thetalk page.(Learn how and when to remove these messages)
This articleneeds additional citations forverification. Please helpimprove this article byadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
Find sources: "Persian alphabet" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
This article includes a list ofgeneral references, butit lacks sufficient correspondinginline citations. Please help toimprove this article byintroducing more precise citations.(September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
(Learn how and when to remove this message)
Persian alphabet
الفبای فارسی
Alefbâ-ye Fârsi
A page from a 12th century manuscript of "Kitab al-Abniya 'an Haqa'iq al-Adwiya" byAbu Mansur Muwaffaq with special Persian letters p (پ), ch (چ) and g (گ = ڭـ).
Script type
Period
c. 7th century CE – present
DirectionRight-to-left script Edit this on Wikidata
LanguagesPersian,Mazanderani,[a]Moghol,Qashqai
Related scripts
Parent systems
Child systems
 This article containsphonetic transcriptions in theInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA. For the distinction between[ ],/ / and ⟨ ⟩, seeIPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.
This article containsPersian text. Without properrendering support, you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbols.
Persian alphabet
ابپتثجچحخدذرزژسشصضطظعغفقکگلمنوهی
Perso-Arabic script
Part of a series on
Writing systems in India
Alphabetical scripts

ThePersian alphabet (Persian:الفبای فارسی,romanized: Alefbâ-ye Fârsi), also known as thePerso-Arabic script, is theright-to-leftalphabet used for thePersian language. This is like theArabic script with four additional letters:پ چ ژ گ (the sounds 'g', 'zh', 'ch', and 'p', respectively), in addition to the obsoleteڤ that was used for the sound/β/. This letter is no longer used in Persian, as the[β]-sound changed to[b], e.g. archaicزڤان/zaβɑn/ >زبان/zæbɒn/ 'language'.[2][3] Although the sound/β/ (ڤ) is written as "و" nowadays inFarsi (Dari-Parsi/New Persian), it is different to the Arabic/w/ (و) sound, which uses the same letter.

It was the basis of manyArabic-based scripts used in Central and South Asia. It is used for bothIranian andDari:standard varieties of Persian; and is one of twoofficialwriting systems for the Persian language, alongside theCyrillic-basedTajik alphabet.

The script is mostly but not exclusivelyright-to-left; mathematical expressions, numeric dates and numbers bearing units are embedded from left to right. The script iscursive, meaning most letters in a word connect to each other; when they are typed, contemporaryword processors automatically join adjacent letter forms. Persian is unusual among Arabic scripts because a zero-width non-joiner is sometimes entered in a word, causing a letter to become disconnected from others in the same word.

History

[edit]

The Persian alphabet is directly derived and developed from theArabic alphabet. The Arabic alphabet was introduced to the Persian-speaking world after theMuslim conquest of Persia and the fall of theSasanian Empire in the 7th century. Following this, theArabic language became the principal language of government and religious institutions inPersia, which led to the widespread usage of the Arabic script. ClassicalPersian literature and poetry were affected by this simultaneous usage ofArabic andPersian. A new influx ofArabic vocabulary soon entered thePersian language.[4] In the 8th century, theTahirid dynasty andSamanid dynasty officially adopted the Arabic script for writing Persian, followed by theSaffarid dynasty in the 9th century, gradually displacing the variousPahlavi scripts used for the Persian language earlier. By the 9th-century, the Perso-Arabic alphabet became the dominant form of writing inGreater Khorasan.[4][5][6]

Under the influence of various Persian Empires, many languages in Central and South Asia that adopted the Arabic script use the Persian Alphabet as the basis of their writing systems. Today, extended versions of the Persian alphabet are used to write a wide variety ofIndo-Iranian languages, includingKurdish,Balochi,Pashto,Urdu (fromClassical Hindustani),Saraiki,Panjabi,Sindhi andKashmiri. In the past the use of the Persian alphabet was common amongstTurkic languages, but today is relegated to those spoken within Iran, such asAzerbaijani,Turkmen,Qashqai,Chaharmahali andKhalaj. TheUyghur language in western China is the most notable exception to this.

During theSoviet period many languages in Central Asia, including Persian, were reformed by the government. This ultimately resulted in the Cyrillic-based alphabet used in Tajikistan today. See:Tajik alphabet § History.

Letters

[edit]
Example showing theNastaʿlīq calligraphic style's proportion rules[citation needed]

Below are the 32 letters of the modern Persian alphabet. Since the script is cursive, the appearance of a letter changes depending on its position: isolated, initial (joined on the left), medial (joined on both sides) and final (joined on the right) of a word.[7] These include 28 letters of theArabic alphabet, in addition to 4 other letters.

The names of the letters are mostly the ones used in Arabic except for the Persian pronunciation. The only ambiguous name ishe, which is used for bothح andه. For clarification, they are often calledhâ-ye jimi (literally "jim-likehe" afterjim, the name for the letterج that uses the same base form) andhâ-ye do-češm (literally "two-eyedhe", after the contextual middle letterformـهـ), respectively. There are eight Persian letters that are mainly used in Arabic or foreign loanwords and not in native words:ث,ح,ذ,ص,ض,ط,ظ,ع andغ. These eight letters are also common used in proper names only. Unlike Arabic, the Persian language does not havepharyngealization at all. Although the letterغ is mainly used in Arabic loanwords, there are some native Persian words with this letter:آغاز,زغال, etc. The pronunciation of these letters in Persian can differ from their pronunciation in Arabic. For example, the letter ث is pronounced as/s/ in Persian, while it is pronounced as/θ/ in Arabic.

LetterPersianArabic
ث/s//θ/
ح/h//ħ/
ذ/z//ð/
ص/s//sˤ/
ض/z//dˤ/
ط/t//tˤ/
ظ/z//ðˤ/
ع/ʔ//ʕ/
غ[ɢ] or[ɣ]/ɣ/

Overview table

[edit]
#Name
(in Persian)		Name
(transliterated)		TransliterationIPAUnicodeContextual forms
FinalMedialInitialIsolated
0همزهhamze[8]ʾGlottal stop[ʔ]U+0621———ء
U+0623ـأأ
U+0626ـئـئـئـئ
U+0624ـؤؤ
1الفalefā[ɒ]U+0627ـاا
2بbeb[b]U+0628ـبـبـبـب
3پpep[p]U+067Eـپـپـپـپ
4تtet[t]U+062Aـتـتـتـت
5ثses̱ /s[s]U+062Bـثـثـثـث
6جیمjimǧ /j[d͡ʒ]U+062Cـجـجـجـج
7چčeč[t͡ʃ]U+0686ـچـچـچـچ
8حhe (hâ-ye jimi)ḥ /h[h]U+062Dـحـحـحـح
9خxex[x]U+062Eـخـخـخـخ
10دالdâld[d]U+062Fـدد
11ذالzâlẕ /z[z]U+0630ـذذ
12رrer[r]U+0631ـرر
13زzez[z]U+0632ـزز
14ژžež[ʒ]U+0698ـژژ
15سینsins[s]U+0633ـسـسـسـس
16شینšinš[ʃ]U+0634ـشـشـشـش
17صادsâdṣ /s[s]U+0635ـصـصـصـص
18ضادzâdż /z[z]U+0636ـضـضـضـض
19طاtâṭ /t[t]U+0637ـطـطـطـط
20ظاzâẓ /z[z]U+0638ـظـظـظـظ
21عینʿeynʿ[ʔ],[æ]/[a]U+0639ـعـعـعـع
22غینġeynġ[ɢ],[ɣ]U+063Aـغـغـغـغ
23فfef[f]U+0641ـفـفـفـف
24قافqâfq[q]U+0642ـقـقـقـق
25کافkâfk[k]U+06A9ـکـکـکـک
26گافgâfg[ɡ]U+06AFـگـگـگـگ
27لامlâml[l]U+0644ـلـلـلـل
28میمmimm[m]U+0645ـمـمـمـم
29نونnunn[n]U+0646ـنـنـنـن
30واوvâv (in Farsi)v /ū /ow /o[uː],[ow],[v],[o] (only word-finally)U+0648ـوو
wâw (in Dari)w /ū /aw /ō[uː],[w],[aw],[oː]
31هhe (hā-ye do-češm)h[h], or[e] and[a] (word-finally)U+0647ـهـهـهـه
32یyey /ī /á / (Alsoay /ē in Dari)[j],[i],[ɒː] ([aj] /[eː] in Dari)U+06CCـیـیـیـی

Historically, inEarly New Persian, there was a special letter for the sound/β/. This letter is no longer used, as the/β/-sound changed to/b/, e.g. archaicزڤان /zaβān/ >زبان/zæbɒːn/ 'language'.[9]

Name
(in Persian)		Name
(transliterated)		TransliterationSoundIsolated formFinal formMedial formInitial form
ڤvev /ḇ /ꞵ/β/ڤـڤـڤـڤـ

Another obsolete variant of the twenty-sixth letterگ/ɡ/ isݣ‎ which used to appear in old manuscripts.[3]

SoundIsolated formFinal formMedial formInitial formName
/ɡ/ݣ‎ـݣ‎ـݣـ‎ڭـgâf

Another obsolete variant of the twenty-fifth letterک/k/ isك‎ which used to appear in old manuscripts.

SoundIsolated formFinal formMedial formInitial formName
/k/ك‎‎ـكـكـ‎كـkâf

The archaic letterݿ/ɡ/ was also used as a substitute for the twenty-sixth letter of the Persian alphabet,گ, which was used to appear in the older manuscripts of Persian in the late 18th century to the early 19th century.

SoundIsolated formFinal formMedial formInitial formName
/ɡ/ݿ‎‎ـݿـݿـ‎ݿـgâf

Variants

[edit]
یهونملگکقفغعظطضصشسژزرذدخحچجثتپباء
•Noto Nastaliq Urdu
•Scheherazade
•Lateef
•Noto Naskh Arabic
•Markazi Text
•Noto Sans Arabic
•Baloo Bhaijaan
•El Messiri SemiBold
•Lemonada Medium
•Changa Medium
•Mada
•Noto Kufi Arabic
•Reem Kufi
•Lalezar
•Jomhuria
•Rakkas
The alphabet in 16 fonts: Noto Nastaliq Urdu, Scheherazade, Lateef, Noto Naskh Arabic, Markazi Text, Noto Sans Arabic, Baloo Bhaijaan, El Messiri SemiBold, Lemonada Medium, Changa Medium, Mada, Noto Kufi Arabic, Reem Kufi, Lalezar, Jomhuria, and Rakkas.

Letter construction

[edit]
forms(i)isolatedءاىںٮحسصطعڡٯکلمدروه
startءاٮـحـسـصـطـعـڡـکـلـمـدروهـ
midءـاـٮــحــســصــطــعــڡــکــلــمــدـرـوـهـ
endءـاـىـںـٮـحـسـصـطـعـڡـٯـکـلـمـدـرـوـه
i'jam(i)
Unicode0621 ..0627 ..0649 ..06BA ..066E ..062D ..0633 ..0635 ..0637 ..0639 ..06A1 ..066F ..066F ..0644 ..0645 ..062F ..0631 ..0648. ..0647 ..
1 dot below﮳بج
UnicodeFBB3.0628 ..062C ..
1 dot above﮲نخضظغفذز
UnicodeFBB2.0646 ..062E ..0636 ..0638 ..063A ..0641 ..0630 ..0632 ..
2 dots below(ii)﮵ی
UnicodeFBB5.06CC ..
2 dots above﮴تقة
UnicodeFBB4.062A ..0642 ..0629 ..
3 dots below﮹پچ
UnicodeFBB9.FBB7.067E ..0686 ..
3 dots above﮶ثشژ
UnicodeFBB6.062B ..0634 ..0698 ..
line above‾گ
Unicode203E.06AF ..
noneءایںحسصطعکلمدروه
Unicode0621 ..0627 ..0649 ..06BA ..062D ..0633 ..0635 ..0637 ..0639 ..066F ..0644 ..0645 ..062F ..0631 ..0648. ..0647 ..
madda aboveۤآ
Unicode06E4.0653.0622 ..
Hamza belowــٕـإ
Unicode0655.0625 ..
Hamza aboveــٔـأئؤۀ
Unicode0674.0654.0623 ..0626 ..0624 ..06C0 ..

^i. Thei'jam diacritic characters are illustrative only; in most typesetting the combined characters in the middle of the table are used.

^ii. Persianyē has 2 dots below in the initial and middle positions only. Thestandard Arabic versionي يـ ـيـ ـي always has 2 dots below.

Letters that do not link to a following letter

[edit]

Seven letters (و,ژ,ز,ر,ذ,د,ا) do not connect to the following letter, unlike the rest of the letters of the alphabet. The seven letters have the same form in isolated and initial position and a second form in medial and final position. For example, when the letterاalef is at the beginning of a word such asاینجاinjâ ("here"), the same form is used as in an isolatedalef. In the case ofامروزemruz ("today"), the letterرre takes the final form and the letterوvâv takes the isolated form, but they are in the middle of the word, andز also has its isolated form, but it occurs at the end of the word.

Diacritics

[edit]

Persian script has adopted a subset ofArabic diacritics:zabar/æ/ (fatḥah in Arabic),zēr/e/ (kasrah in Arabic), andpēš/ou̯/ or/o/ (ḍammah in Arabic, pronouncedzamme inWestern Persian),tanwīne nasb/æn/ andšaddah (gemination). Other Arabic diacritics may be seen in Arabic loanwords in Persian.

180
NastaliqPersian Calligram the Persian letterMem

Short vowels

[edit]

Of the four Arabic diacritics, the Persian language has adopted the following three for short vowels. The last one,sukūn, which indicates the lack of a vowel, has not been adopted.

Short vowels
(fullyvocalized text)		Name
(in Persian)		Name
(transliterated)		Trans.(a)Value(b)

(Farsi/Dari)

064E
◌َ‎		زبر
(فتحه)		zebar/zibara/æ//a/
0650
◌ِ‎		زیر
(کسره)		zer/zire;i/e//ɪ/;/ɛ/
064F
◌ُ‎		پیش
(ضمّه)		peš/pišo;u/o//ʊ/

^a. There is no standard transliteration for Persian. The letters 'i' and 'u' are only ever used as short vowels when transliterating Dari or Tajik Persian. SeePersian Phonology

^b. Diacritics differ by dialect, due to Dari having 8 distinct vowels compared to the 6 vowels of Farsi. SeePersian Phonology

In Farsi, none of these short vowels may be the initial or final grapheme in an isolated word, although they may appear in the final position as aninflection, when the word is part of a noun group. In a word that starts with a vowel, the first grapheme is a silentalef which carries the short vowel, e.g.اُمید (omid, meaning "hope"). In a word that ends with a vowel, lettersع,ه andو respectively become the proxy letters forzebar,zir andpiš, e.g.نو (now, meaning "new") orبسته (bast-e, meaning "package").

Tanvin (nunation)

[edit]
Main article:Nunation

Nunation (Persian:تنوین,tanvin) is the addition of one of three vowel diacritics to a noun or adjective to indicate that the word ends in an alveolar nasal sound without the addition of the letter nun.

Nunation
(fullyvocalized text)		Name
(in Persian)		Name
(transliterated)		Notes
064B
َاً، ـاً، ءً‎		تنوین نَصْبْTanvine nasb
064D
ٍِ‎		تنوین جَرّTanvine jarrNever used in the Persian language.

Taught inIslamic nations to complementQuran education.

064C
ٌ‎		تنوین رَفْعْTanvine rafʿ

Tašdid

[edit]
Main article:Shadda
SymbolName
(in Persian)		Name
(transliteration)
0651
ّ‎		تشدیدtašdid

Other characters

[edit]

The following are not actual letters but different orthographical shapes for letters, a ligature in the case of thelâm alef. As toﺀ (hamza), it has only one graphical form since it is never tied to a preceding or following letter. However, it is sometimes 'seated' on avâv,ye oralef, and in that case, the seat behaves like an ordinaryvâv,ye oralef respectively. Technically,hamza is not a letter but a diacritic.

NamePronunciationIPAUnicodeFinalMedialInitialStand-aloneNotes
alef maddeâ[ɒ]U+0622ـآ—آThe final form is very rare and is freely replaced with ordinaryalef.
he ye-eye or-eyeh[eje]U+06C0ـۀ—ۀValidity of this form depends on region and dialect. Some may use the two-letterـه‌ی orه‌ی combinations instead.
lām aleflā[lɒ]U+0644 (lām) and U+0627 (alef)ـلالا
kašidaU+0640—ـ—This is the medial character which connects other characters

Although at first glance, they may seem similar, there are many differences in the way the different languages use the alphabets. For example, similar words are written differently in Persian and Arabic, as they are used differently.

Unicode has acceptedU+262B ☫FARSI SYMBOL in theMiscellaneous Symbols range.[10] In Unicode 1.0 this symbol was known asSYMBOL OF IRAN.[11] It is a stylization ofالله (Allah) used as theemblem of Iran. It is also a part of theflag of Iran.

The Unicode Standard has a compatibility character definedU+FDFC ﷼RIAL SIGN that can representریال, the Persian name of thecurrency of Iran.[12]

Novel letters

[edit]

The Persian alphabet has four extra letters that are not in the Arabic alphabet:/p/,/t͡ʃ/ (ch inchair),/ʒ/ (s inmeasure),/ɡ/. An additional fifth letterڤ was used for/β/ (v inSpanishhuevo) but it is no longer used.

SoundShapeNameUnicode code point
/p/پpeU+067E
/t͡ʃ/ (ch)چčeU+0686
/ʒ/ (zh)ژžeU+0698
/ɡ/گgâfU+06AF

Deviations from the Arabic script

[edit]

Persian uses theEastern Arabic numerals, but the shapes of the digits 'four' (۴), 'five' (۵), and 'six' (۶) are different from the shapes used in Arabic. All the digits also have different codepoints inUnicode:[13]

Hindu-ArabicPersianNameUnicodeArabicUnicode
0۰صفر

sefr

U+06F0٠U+0660
1۱يک

yek

U+06F1١U+0661
2۲دو

do

U+06F2٢U+0662
3۳سه

se

U+06F3٣U+0663
4۴چهار

čahâr

U+06F4٤U+0664
5۵پنج

panj

U+06F5٥U+0665
6۶شش

šeš

U+06F6٦U+0666
7۷هفت

haft

U+06F7٧U+0667
8۸هشت

hašt

U+06F8٨U+0668
9۹نه

no

U+06F9٩U+0669
-یyeU+06CCي[c]U+064A
کkâfU+06A9كU+0643
  1. ^The alphabet Mazanderani uses is identical to that of Persian's, having no additional modified letters
  2. ^Many Perso-Arabic scripts in South Asia share close similarities (use of Nastaliq, use of superscript ط to represent retroflex consonants, etc.) due to mutual contact during development. It is inaccurate to say that one Indo-Persian script directly descends from another, and instead, they are best seen as a cluster of scripts with common origin.
  3. ^However, the Arabic variant continues to be used in its traditional style in theNile Valley, similarly as it is used in Persian and Ottoman Turkish.

Comparison of different numerals

[edit]
See also:Eastern Arabic numerals § Numerals
Western Arabic012345678910
Eastern Arabic[a]٠١٢٣٤٥٦٧٨٩١٠
Persian[b]۰۱۲۳۴۵۶۷۸۹۱۰
Urdu[c]۰۱۲۳۴۵۶۷۸۹۱۰
Abjad numerals ابجدهوزحطي
  1. ^U+0660 through U+0669
  2. ^U+06F0 through U+06F9. The numbers 4, 5, and 6 are different from Eastern Arabic.
  3. ^Same Unicode characters as the Persian, but language is set to Urdu. The numerals 4, 6 and 7 are different from Persian. On some devices, this row may appear identical to Persian.

Word boundaries

[edit]

Typically, words are separated from each other by a space. Certain morphemes (such as the plural ending '-hâ'), however, are written without a space. On a computer, they are separated from the word using thezero-width non-joiner.

Cyrillic Persian alphabet in Tajikistan

[edit]

As part of therussification ofCentral Asia, the Cyrillic script was introduced in the late 1930s.[14][15][16][17] The alphabet has remained Cyrillic since then. In 1989, with the growth inTajik nationalism, a law was enacted declaring Tajik thestate language. In addition, the law officially equated Tajik withPersian, placing the wordFarsi (the endonym for the Persian language) after Tajik. The law also called for a gradual reintroduction of the Perso-Arabic alphabet.[18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][excessive citations]

The Persian alphabet was introduced intoeducation and public life, although the banning of theIslamic Renaissance Party in 1993 slowed adoption. In 1999, the wordFarsi was removed from the state-language law, reverting the name to simplyTajik.[1] As of 2004[update] thede facto standard in use is theTajik Cyrillic alphabet,[2] and as of 1996[update] only a very small part of the population can read the Persian alphabet.[3]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^"THE ARABI - MALAYALAM SCRIPTURE". 2008-03-18. Archived fromthe original on 18 March 2008. Retrieved2023-01-11.
  2. ^"PERSIAN LANGUAGE i. Early New Persian".Iranica Online. Retrieved18 March 2019.
  3. ^abOrsatti, Paola (2019)."Persian Language in Arabic Script: The Formation of the Orthographic Standard and the Different Graphic Traditions of Iran in the First Centuries of the Islamic Era".Creating Standards (Book).
  4. ^abLapidus, Ira M. (2012).Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History.Cambridge University Press. p. 256.ISBN 978-0-521-51441-5.
  5. ^Lapidus, Ira M. (2002).A History of Islamic Societies.Cambridge University Press. p. 127.ISBN 978-0-521-77933-3.
  6. ^Ager, Simon."Persian (Fārsī / فارسی)".Omniglot.
  7. ^"ویژگى‌هاى خطّ فارسى".Academy of Persian Language and Literature. Archived fromthe original on 2017-09-07. Retrieved2017-08-05.
  8. ^"??"(PDF). Persianacademy.ir. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 2015-09-24. Retrieved2015-09-05.
  9. ^"PERSIAN LANGUAGE i. Early New Persian".Iranica Online. Retrieved18 March 2019.
  10. ^"Miscellaneous Symbols". p. 4.The Unicode Standard, Version 13.0. Unicode.org
  11. ^"3.8 Block-by-block Charts" § Miscellaneous Dingbats p. 325 (155 electronically).The Unicode Standard Version 1.0. Unicode.org
  12. ^For the proposal, seePournader, Roozbeh (2001-09-20)."Proposal to add Arabic Currency Sign Rial to the UCS"(PDF). It proposes the character under the name ofARABIC CURRENCY SIGN RIAL, which was changed by the standard committees toRIAL SIGN.
  13. ^"Unicode Characters in the 'Number, Decimal Digit' Category".
  14. ^Hämmerle, Christa (2008).Gender Politics in Central Asia: Historical Perspectives and Current Living Conditions of Women. Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar.ISBN 978-3-412-20140-1.
  15. ^Cavendish, Marshall (September 2006).World and Its Peoples. Marshall Cavendish.ISBN 978-0-7614-7571-2.
  16. ^Landau, Jacob M.; Landau, Yaʿaqov M.; Kellner-Heinkele, Barbara (2001).Politics of Language in the Ex-Soviet Muslim States: Azerbayjan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Tajikistan. University of Michigan Press.ISBN 978-0-472-11226-5.
  17. ^Buyers, Lydia M. (2003).Central Asia in Focus: Political and Economic Issues. Nova Publishers.ISBN 978-1-59033-153-8.
  18. ^Ehteshami, Anoushiravan (1994).From the Gulf to Central Asia: Players in the New Great Game. University of Exeter Press.ISBN 978-0-85989-451-7.
  19. ^Malik, Hafeez (1996).Central Asia: Its Strategic Importance and Future Prospects. St. Martin's Press.ISBN 978-0-312-16452-2.
  20. ^Banuazizi, Ali; Weiner, Myron (1994).The New Geopolitics of Central Asia and Its Borderlands. Indiana University Press.ISBN 978-0-253-20918-4.
  21. ^Westerlund, David; Svanberg, Ingvar (1999).Islam Outside the Arab World. St. Martin's Press.ISBN 978-0-312-22691-6.
  22. ^Gillespie, Kate; Henry, Clement M. (1995).Oil in the New World Order. University Press of Florida.ISBN 978-0-8130-1367-1.
  23. ^Badan, Phool (2001).Dynamics of Political Development in Central Asia. Lancers' Books.
  24. ^Winrow, Gareth M. (1995).Turkey in Post-Soviet Central Asia. Royal Institute of International Affairs.ISBN 978-0-905031-99-6.
  25. ^Parsons, Anthony (1993).Central Asia, the Last Decolonization. David Davies Memorial Institute.
  26. ^Report on the USSR. RFE/RL, Incorporated. 1990.
  27. ^Middle East Monitor. Middle East Institute. 1990.
  28. ^Ochsenwald, William; Fisher, Sydney Nettleton (2010-01-06).The Middle East: A History. McGraw-Hill Education.ISBN 978-0-07-338562-4.
  29. ^Gall, Timothy L.; Hobby, Jeneen (2009).Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life. Gale.ISBN 978-1-4144-4892-3.

External links

[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related toPersian alphabet.
History
Language families
Dialects and varieties
Language features
Grammar
Writing system
Literature
Organizations
Other topics
Europe
Asia
Africa
Authority control databases: NationalEdit this at Wikidata
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Persian_alphabet&oldid=1316659858"
Categories:
Hidden categories:
[8]ページ先頭
©2009-2025 Movatter.jp